
Class __ili_4 



Book. 



^/^/T 



GoKiiglit^Ii 



CQFmiCHT DEPOSm 



THE 



^o-a 



NEW SOUTH. 



A Description of the Southfkx Siates, Notinc; Each State Separaiely, 

AND Giving their Distinctive Features and Most 

Salient Characteristics. 



^« 



(/■ 



BY M. B. HILLYARD. 




PUBLISHED r.Y 

THE MANUFACTURERS' RECORD CO. 
UALIIMORE, MD. 



C^VAv\t 



Tzi5 

.H45 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1887, 

By MANUFACTURERS' RECORD CO. 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C. 



Press 0/ 

Record Printing House, 

Biilfimore, Md. 



PREFACE. 



This book represents, in a measure, asinrations long cherished b}' the author 
to do something of service for the Soutli — liis adopted, loved home. 

The name "New South" is one as much my own as it is tlu;t of any one, as 
it was used by me in a pamphlet published some eight years ago of much more 
limited scope than this work. So much as to my right to use a title quite liack- 
nej'ed of late. .....^ 

It is a friendly criticism of this book, that so little of it is ni}' own, and so 
much that of otliers; but the intention of the book was to convict and persuade, 
and not merely to fuinish a vehicle for my thoughts. The labor bas lain much in 
research and selection. There are some great results certain to be accomplislied 
by the use of the subject-matter of others. 

It will be observed that much of the material is taken from the reports of the 
last (tenth) census of the United States. There are two facts about this report. 
It is a work of experts, is thorough, and commends itself to the scientific. Fol- 
lowing it, one is sure to be correct, or, at any rate, to have for the topic the best 
judgment of the day. In the next place, the United States Government has set 
the seal of its approbation upon its pages. This makes it, to the last degree, 
authoritative and current with the world, '^o higher sanctions are to be expected. 
Foreign peoples can desire nothing more. Tlie people, outside the South, of the 
United Slates cannot consider the views as sectional and biased in favor of the 
South. As to the use of material gathered from the books issued by some of the 
Southern States, there is this advantage: I cannot be said to have misstated 
matters as to anything or section I have noticed. 

In quoting I have constantly felt embarrassed by the difficulty in selecting 
how little to insert. Doubtless my sense of proportion at times (and may be 
often) has been at fault. There is more said about one locality than ought to be, 
and too little or nc^tiiing about another. This last state of affairs (which inheres 
in the magnitude of the subject) has been a source of pain all the way through 
the preparation of the book. But there was nothing sinister about this, and it 
nuist pass M'ith the above explanation. 

Another difficulty has been in the necessity for compression. The material 
has swollen far beyond any expectation ; the use of it beyond the original design. 
In my appreciation of the style and subject-matter of those I have quoted, I have 
often been beguiled beyond limits compatible with a just allotment of space. 
Some States have not had the same space as is given to others. I have often 
failed, through lack of space, to quote from authors who have given much to the 
world, of value about one and another Southern State. 

In the handling of the geological features of some of the States, I have fol- 
lowed, or at least tried to follow, the work of eminent geologists. 

Throughout the book, wlierever has been found any subject-matter which 
could be used, I have preferred to give it, rather than to write of the topic myself. 
But there can really be no good excuse for a bad book ; and I can only hope that 



4 PREFACE. 

xny good intentions may make this not utterly contemned by tlie critics, if any 
one should condescend to notice it. 

To be sure, I would fain plead many excuses ; but what has the world to do 
with that ? I have dared to print a book. It has no excuse for being but in the 
fact that it is something. 

Certainly no one will be apt to find in it as many defects as I. As I have 
gone along, the disproportion between my conception and execution has caused 
many regrets. But, in one sense, I owe no apology or excuse for this business. 
My intention has been to do " the State some service." It is my hope that I have 
done it. This aspiration for usefulness sanctions and even dignifies the work. 

This book had much of its suggestion in my own wants. Having studied the 
South for a number of years, and having traveled over much of it, I was con- 
stantly reminded how little I knew of it. Often wishing to know of one and 
another thing in the South, I found that I had to hunt it up. This was suggestive. 
I thought that if I, Avho was somewhat conversant with the South, had to study 
in order to discover thus and so, how must it be with those who had never studied 
tlie South at all? AVho had never even thought of it as a field for capital or enter- 
prise, a home, a resort for health ? Then I was struck with the fact that there 
was no one book (according to my information) treating of the South as a whole. 
Here, it seemed, was an opportunity to serve the South, and meet what I regard 
as the great need of the time — accurate, unbiased information about the Avhole 
South. 

Any one appreciating the largeness of the aim, the pressing needs of the 
occasion, can see how poorly the work has been performed. But I have given 
the cue to book-makers, and think I have said something that the world wishes 
to know. 

The South is now exciting more interest than any other quarter of the globe 
as to its mineral resources. It has other claims upon the world's attention, and I 
have tried to portray some of them. The aim of this book is to show what the 
South is, how she has progressed, and to conjecture somewhat Miiat she may be. 

The introduction is mostly my own. Most of the matter about the States is 
a compilation. I have always tried to give due credit to all from whom I have 
quoted ; always aimed to give their sense ; have never garbled. 

It is my offering of love to the South. 



INTRODUCTION. 



At tlje close of the late civil \yar the South was crushed as hardly any country 
in the world's history ever was/ i, In all other wars, no matter what devastations 
€nsued, the labor element was not paralyzed. With the return of peace, rudi- 
mentary and fundamental indilstries fesuuied their sway. The farmer returned 
to his plow; the artisan to his trade. At the South, the enfranchised negro, in. 
the wild ferment of his spirits, and the most emotional of races, uneducated, 
utterly improvident, with no conception of the meaning of his intoxicating boon, 
reveled in coarse and giddy idleness. Slavery had meant to him work and sub- 
jection to the will of another. Freedom must mean idleness and the pursuit of 
his whims! Hence, the fields were largely deserted; and the negro, naturally 
very gregarious, crowded to the cities and towns. Agriculture, the true power 
and beneficence of which is never so well demonstrated as after the close of 
greatly devastating wars, did not allure back to the fields its old denizens. This 
disinclination to the field was intensified in the negro by the creation of the 
Freedman's Bureau, an institution inaugurated by the Federal Government for 
the support of the indigent. To this the negroes flocked in great numbers, and 
finding a support there, declined for some time to work. 

The close of the war found the white man generally not only not inured to 
field labor, but ignorant of it. During the existence of slavery the professions 
were the walks of the young men, or lives of extravagant ease or luxurious 
idleness. Those who were not busy in their professions or had none, led such a 
holiday life as would be difficult to furnish an adequate dcscrii)tion of. Some 
traveled; some spent their tune between the library and the parlor; many led a 
life of revelry — fun, frolic, dissipation; they were great riders and fine shots; 
they had their kennels and their thoroughbred horses. The softer aspects of this 
gay and sumptuous life could furnish some beautiful matter for the poet and 
novelist. 

The war came. The young men and the old flocked to it as to a festival. It 
was a sort of carnival of patriotism. Many fell in battle ; many came wounded 
or dismembered home. Had these known how to work, they could not. They 
knew nothing of agriculture. The negro was hard to persuade to the fields, and 
many would not go. Another difficult}- was that the war had swept away the 
horses and mules. These had to be supplied and bought on credit at extravagant 
prices. Breadstuffs were exceedingly high, and must be bought on credit. 
Another phase was, that, under slavery, the credit of planters was very high, 
and they very generally had expended the value of the year's crop before it was 
made. This indebtedness caught them behindhand witli merchants at the incep- 
tion of the war. Generallj', the merchants, from patriotic motives, forbore 
pressing their claims. 

At the close of the war the soldiers found themselves, very generally, heavily 
in debt to merchants; fences in ruin ; implements of agriculture gone, useless or 
only semi-serviceable; mules and horses killed, half starved or gone; labor disor- 



INTRODUCTION. 

ganized, with the rauk must of freedom fermenting in the bk)od and turning the 
brain of former slaves. 

Cotton was high in price. Almost every one turned to making cotton on 
high-priced hay, pork, mules, corn, etc. Cotton fell so enormously in price that 
it brought utter ruin to many, and loaded the South with a burden of indebted- 
ness to the merchants that is still weighing her down. Had there been little or 
no cotton raised that awful year, the South would long ago have been on her feet; 
but the old indebtedness of ante helium days, and the added indebtedness of the 
great losses by cotton-raising, tightened the manacles upon the Southern planter,, 
and many are yet in the bonds. 

The merchant, virtually owning the land of the planter, has been enabled to 
dictate his methods. The planter must raise cotton, and buy pork, corn, hay, etc. 
These breadstuffs the planter has been compelled to pay high prices for to the 
merchants wlio have liens upon the land. 

Between the fatuity of the planter in raising cotton and buying pork, corn, 
hay, etc., voluntarily, and the enforced raising of cotton and buying of breadstuffs 
in the manner above stated, lie the explanation of the depressed condition of the 
South so long after the war. Along Avith these reasons, and subordinate to them, 
are questions of lien law, modes of wages, etc., which cannot here be elaborated. 

It is said above that the abolition of slavery, in connection with other condi- 
tions consequent upon the wai, paralyzed the South; but in parts of the South 
there were notable exceptions to the effects of the abolition of slavery. These 
exceptions wei-e with the poor white men Avho either owned no slaves or very 
few. These people were generally poor, uneducated and industrious. Thejr 
worked in tlie field and taught their children to work. If they owned a few 
slaves, they went to the field and Avorked with them. They owned small farms,, 
and generally lived ratlier remote from centres of trade. They raised their own 
corn and ])()rk, "made" some oats and wheat, made their own molasses. They 
kept a few cattle. The wife and daughters made some butter, raised poultry, and, 
in many instances, spun and wove the wool clipped from the sheep raised at home. 
The home was " homely," and made of logs, perhaps. Father and sons were good 
shots; and the wild turkey, the deer, squirrel and bear frequently fell beneath 
their rifle. These people were self-supporting. If they raised a little cotton, 
instead of paying the merchants bills for advances to them, the money from its 
sale, after buying some coffee and clothing, went back to the home, to be put in 
the family bank, (the liome-knit stocking,) or to be buried in the garden or forest. 

The lives of these people had two great lessons for the world and the South. 
They were living refutations of the old dogma that white people could not stand 
labor HI the field. Despite bad houses, indifferent food, too free use of tobacco by 
both sexes, large potations of black coffee, and great disregard of weather in work 
or play, no jieople could well be more healthy than tliey. Tlie children were 
chubby, rosy, robust, and with constitutions like a wild cat. The women were 
fecund beyond belief Tlie staple argument in defense of slavery was that the 
negro was a necessity to the South, because no one but the negro could stand the 
hot suns in tlie field. Here, now, was this white man, with his children, working 
from sunrise to sunset. He was there in the mountains of Virginia, North and 
South Carolina, Georgia; in the hills of Alabama; the pine woods of Mississippi, 
Florida, Louisiana, and the other States above named. He was too poor to own 
rich lands. Strange that the world has not learned that there were tens of 
thousands of white workers in the field before the war who did just as good and 
rather better work than the slave, and at the same work ! 

Somewhat before and much since the war, this poor white man had another 
great lesson for the world — that the South need not go to the West for bread- 



INTRODUCTION. 7 

stuffs. What could be bought of the latter at the far-off town that he did not 
raise at home? His hogs did not even cost him corn, as they do West. They 
ranged in the woods all the year, and in winter were fat on the mast of oak, 
beech, chestnut, hickory, etc. He did not even have to fence them in ; they ranged 
on his neighbor. If he wished to improve his lard, he fed them on corn a few 
weeks before killing them. That's how much his pork cost. As to corn, he had 
it early and late. He planted, in some parts of the country in question, in Feb- 
ruary, and he could plant in June and make a crop. He ate " roasting ears " long 
alter the cold weather had set in North and AVest. Everybody raised com. Even 
many of the richest planters would scorn to buy corn. In many places it was not 
worth twenty-five cents a bushel, and, indeed, there was no market for it. It was 
a drug. Why then should Western farmers still believe that because the South 
has been long (since the war) buying their corn at high prices, she cannot raise 
it?* As to wheat, barley, rye and oats, almost every farmer had a patch of one 
or more of these. The wheat was to be ground into flour at the mill near by. 
The rye or barley was for winter pasture for his calves and milch cows. The 
patch had been "cow-penned" for a year or so before breaking up, so as to enrich 
it. Some of the rye would be kept to be parched and mixed with the coffee. The 
oats might " rust," but anyhow they were to be tried. (They have an oat now that 
don't rust, and it is one of the best and heaviest known— the "red rust-proof") 
Near by was his patch of cane. From that he would make his molasses (deli- 
cious, too, and pure,) and his brown sugar. The latter would do good service in 
preserving the plums that grew wild in such profusion, and for the same service 
to the apples and delicious seedling peaches, strawberries and blackberries wild 

on the farm. 

These are a few features of a poor picture of tens of thousands of families in 
the Southern States before and after the war. I have gone about in travel con- 
siderably, and I never saw a man who raised his own corn and pork that was not 
doing well. Rich he might not be ; but he was almost always out of debt, and a 
little'^ahead. I have seen people in my rambles who never bought a bushel of corn 
or wheat or a pound of flour or bacon; they always raised these. These men 
were mostly the poor men we have been speaking of To most of them the aboli- 
tion of slavery meant no loss, for they never owned a slave. It did mean rather 
better social conditions for them, for it gave them contacts and associations they 
never had before. They have become to be more respected and much endeared 
now, in the new and greater labor-respecting spirit of the South. The best work 
these men have done for the South is not only in preserving the sacred fire of 
industry, but by the lessons almost unconsciously learned by the South from their 
teachings of self-support. Year by year the South has seen these patient, indus- 
trious fellows, with no aspirations of getting rich in a year or two, gradually 
adding to their acres; raising all they consume; selling a surplus of cotton or 
sugar°or tobacco, and laying by the money. The rich men or the large land- 
owners have caught the hint, and they, too, are raising their own supplies. The 
merchants, in many instances, are encouraging this; and so, a new system is 
growing up. I repeat it, that I think the spirit of home production ; the enlarg- 
ing habit of self-support, ever widening and deepening in the South, owe their 
inception and restoration and most forcible commendation to these poor wiiites. 
To demonstrate this position, it could be shown how the counties in the States 
where this class lived, raised, through all the latter j^ears, the large proportion of 
breadstuffs. But, howsoever these things be. tlie fact is undeniable that the South, 



*The seat of corn production was formerly in the South. * * * I" ^^49, fifteen Somhe^^^^^^ 
produced 59 per cent, of the cro^.-Report 0/ the Statistician, page 3S4, '« Agricultural Report for 
l88l and 1882. 



8 INTRODUCTION. 

year by year, is increasing the quantity of her breadstuffs. This will be shown; 
and the facts will surprise others, as they have me, notwithstanding some con- 
versancy with Southern progress. Let us, however, not go on with this topic 
until we look, in a very general and cursory way, at some aspects of life after the 
war that should not be forgotten. 

It were a conscious and almost criminal dereliction to pass by, without a 
word of comment and reprobation, some of the enormities that disgraced that 
refjime and afflicted the South. "Law," instead of being "beneficence acting 
according to rule," was enthroned corruption, caprice, vindictiveness or igno- 
rance—one or more. Some judges, ignorant of everything like law, and informed 
only to subserve the ends of their appointment or their own aggrandizement, 
were installed. Not only could — 

"Offense's gilded hand shove by justice," — 

but " the wicked prize" could "buy out the law." Ex pcirte processes issued out- 
side legal forums and in infamous privacies, marked some proceedings. Decisions 
were delivered that overthrew established law, and still continue, as the comment 
upon their authors, upon the records. 

No better service could be performed to future ages than a collection of the 
judicial decisions of that time — decisions often the dictates of the grossest igno- 
rance; oflener, perhaps, of corruption. Their authors should be forever pilloried 
in jHiblic contempt by the publication of a collectania juridica, and so be rescued 
from their perishable infamy and made immortal. 

Many of the creatures in the halls of legislation were past belief and descrip- 
tion. A troop of gibbering apes tricked in the paraphernalia of power, and 
playing at kings, would be a mild mockery of state, compared to the grotesque 
and groveling saturnalia of that wild and hideous rabble in those dark and direful 
days. No legislation could be procured without bribery, except such as inured to 
the corrupt or vindictive purposes of dominant partisanship. Enormous taxes 
were laid, not for the furtherance of material development, but with predetermi- 
nations to constitute a fund of corruption and plunder. Legislatures were over- 
thrown by a hostile soldiery at the bidding of mercenary, partisan governors — an 
anachronism of usurpation. Thieves, peculators and murderers were impaneled 
as grand jurors by corrupt sheriffs, to protect themselves from indictment. Pro- 
fessional bribe-takers in platoons of lazy, ignorant men, hung about the courts of 
justice — tried and trusty mercenaries — a thoroughl}^ drilled band to decide upon 
the lives and fortunes of the people. Perjury was a pastime, and bribery their 
"bread and meat." These wretches reveled in their infamy — capable of any 
degradation; glad to fulfill the behests of their employers, and bidding for use by 
ever enlarging capabilities of diabolism. The vast debts foisted upon the com- 
mcmwealths, the peculations of public officials, the perversions of power, the 
prostitutions of the appliances and forms of law, the terrorisms of the national 
military, the incredible and numerous infamies of that direful day, beggar invec- 
tive. The heroic ages of plunder and infamy in any civilization never furnished 
a parallel ; and nothing but an elaborate and specific enumeration of the flagrant 
enormities will suffice to vindicate to the impartial reader our strictures, because 
the age would have seemed to forbid such capabilities of atrocious rascality. 

In so large a theme as an attempt to depict Southern conditions, progress, 
I)ossibilitics, stmie system is necessary to even a semblance of portraying the 
most salient features of her development and possibilities. I shall, therefore, 
make my points as distinct as possible, and show the South under different 
aspects. It will be necessary to assume more or less, partly from lack of space ; 
partly because, from the very nature of the case, it is impossible to offer demon- 
stration. As, for instance, if it is claimed that the South must become the home 



INTRODUCTION. 



of such and such an industry which does not yet exist, it manifestly is impossible 
to demonstrate it. But I think these assumptions will connuend themselves to 
the common sense or reasoning of most readers. If, however, they be scouted, I 
must leave them to time for corroboration. Certain assumptions a few years ago 
of what the South would soon become were flouted as preposterous. They are 
facts of terrible meaning now to those within the sphere of her competitions. 

One of the most striking improvements in the South is her progress in agri- 
culture. This is very noticeable in the increased production of staples, but it is 
also very notable for new agricultural methods, use of new appliances, and the 
productions from the soil entirely unknown to her a few years back. In cereals, 
as the following table will show, the South has regained and even surpassed her 
production before the war. This means, at least, keeping home the money that 
she has been paying to the West until of late. It probably means more, of which 
something hereafter, perhaps. But always let it be borne in mind that the 
measure of the South's supply of food for cattle is not to be gauged by a consid- 
eration of her product of corn and hay, whenever an estimate is to be made as to 
what she will need for home consumption, or as to how much she may hereafter 
compete with the North and West in their own markets with her production of 
corn, oats and hay; for the utilization of the hitherto neglected cotton seed is a 
powerful factor which it is very difficult to estimate; and the fields of the South, 
hereafter to be green most of the winter, for pasture for cattle, through the use of 
clover, Kentucky blue-grass, etc., is an element of competition with the North 
and West (by allowing the South to sell corn, hay and oats,) which is absolutely 
imponderable. But to the facts giving some aspects of cereal production in the 
South. As illustrating the rapid increase in this direction, I have compiled, from 
the official reports of the United States Agricultural Department, the statistics of 
the grain crops produced in the Southern States in 1868 and 1885. The reports 
of the Agricultural Department unfortunately do not cover the production of 
rice, sugar-cane, fruits, and some other crops which fojm a very important feature 
of Southern agriculture. The yield of wheat, corn and oats in the South in 18G8 
and 1885 compare as follows, (the statistics of wheat being for 1886) : 

188:;. 1868. 



MARYLAND. 

Indian Corn, bus. . 
Wheat, " .. 

Oats, " .. 

VIRGINIA. 

Indian Corn, bus. . 
Wheat, " .. 

Oats, 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

Indian Corn, bus . . 
Wheat, " .. 

Oats, " .. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Indian Corn, bus. . 
Wheat, " . . 

Oats, " .. 

GEORGIA. 

Indian Corn, bus . . 
Wheat, " .. 

Oats, " .. 

FLORIDA. 

Indian Corn, bus . . 
Wheat, " .. 

Oats, " . . 

ALABAMA 

Indian Corn, bus . . 

Wheat, 

Oats, 



1885. 

15,999,000 
7,337,000 
2,475,000 



31,030,000 
6,1^3,000 
8,664,000 



25,199,000 
3,487,000 
4,483,000 



13,453,000 

838,000 

3,510,000 



32,162,000 
1,621,000 
6,395,000 



3,709,000 



519,000 



31,405,000 
1,072,000 
4,915,000 



1868. 

12,349,000 
5,706,000 
6,096,000 



19,969,000 
6,9x4,000 
8,671,000 



23,366,000 
2,971,000 
3,479,000 



9,870,000 
717,000 
629,000 



27,294,000 
1,832,000 
1,132,000 



2,950,000 



31,240,000 
829,000 
567,000 



MISSISSIPPI. 

Indian Corn, bus. 
Wheat, " . 

Oats, " . 

LOUISIANA. 

Indian Corn, bus. 
Wheat, " . 

Oats, " . 

TEXAS. 

Indian Corn, bus. 

Wheat, 

Oats, " . 

ARKANS.^S. 

Indian Corn, bus. 
Wheat, " . 

Oats, " . 

TENNESSEE. 

Indian Corn, bus. 
Wheat, '• . 

Oats, " . 

WEST VIRC;iNIA. 

Indian Corn, bus. 
Wheat, " . 

Oats, " . 

KENTUCKY. 

Indian Corn, bus. 
Wheat, " . 

Oats, " . 



25,765,000 

173,000 

3,962,000 



15,410,000 



420,000 



84,4o6,fx30 

6,112,000 

14,211,000 



38,309,000 
1,878,000 
5,313,000 



75,581,000 

8,749,000 

10,752,000 



15,827,000 
3,321,000 
2,831^000 



90,569,000 
12,785,000 
10,225,000 



35,519,000 
242,000 
110,000 



17,397,000 
50,000 
57,000 



,337,000 
389,000 
861,000 



32,449,000 

1 ,000,000 

439,000 



54,772,000 
6,137,000 
2,881,000 



7,695,000 
2,185,000 
1,755,000 



58,187,000 
2,850,000 
5,906,000 



lyrjioDrcTioy. 

Summing up these statistics, the production of cereals in the South in 1S85 
is shown to be as follows, (wheat statistics being for 1886) : 

CORN. WHKAT. OATS. 

Marj-land ii.^-c.rco -.^t-.co? r_#-^.cco 

Virginia .•• 5i,^;i..C'. -.:55.:co - -:,.;co 

North Carolina =5.1: j*- •■- . .^: o 

South Carolina 13.45-. • . o 

i^Worsia • •- 5.JI'. • ..; -^ 

Florida »--■ 3,799,>xo 519, ceo 

Alabama 31,405,000 1,072,000 4.915,000 

Mississippi 25,7^5 173,000 3,962,000 

Louisiana 15-4- 420,000 

Texas i-; '^.iir.v.xw 14.a11.00o 

Arkansas . :.:-:. ■:•.-> 5,313,000 

Tennessee - ..-i .-o :c, 73^,000 

Kentucky 9c,5:v;,jco i^jjS^jooo 10,2^5,000 

West Virginia i5,S27,ooo 3,321.000 2,531,000 

Total, i8?5 47"»,T7c,cco 53.5:ro.ooo 75,675.000 

" iSdS • 554,124,000 31 ,$22,000 33,583.000 

Increase 116,632,000 21,704,000 46,092,000 

Thus, despite the many disadvantages under which Southern agriculture has 
labored, and which are now l»egianing to give way, the South increased its pro- 
duction of grain from ISOS to 1885 by 116.toe,oix) bushels of ci>rn, ^l.TO^.tKH) 
bushels of wheat and 4«5.C»i>J.«XX> bushels of oats, or an aggregate increase of the 
three of over 184,448,000 bushels — a stupendous gain that gives promise of what 
may be expected in the future, now that Southern fanners are turning their 
attention more and more to diversified agriculture, finding in that much l>*tter 
success than in the all-cotton system. 

It is quite noteworthy, as shown by the precetling statistics, h«>w the pnKiuct 
of the Oitt has increased in the cotton-raising Stiites. TLis is one re:tson why 
corn-raising has not increased more. The oat crop is one of the most popular 
and most easily produced in the South — being sown in the fall, generally, and 
plowed in in the - " _-' st manner. After it is cut, the young " crab" (crop) grass 
(jMi^i/nin san^ . omes on, and gives fine pasture until frost. 

The use of the field pea in the South has increased very greatly of late. It 
is equivalent to a considerable provluction of com, as it feeds both man and bt ast, 
and. indeed, is a very rich fxxl for cattle. Indeevl, the use of the pea and c\>:ion 
seed — the latter becoming pretty common — gives to the com production very 
\QUch greater reach and scope than will be estimateil easih*. The truth is. that 
between the uses of the oat, the pea and cotton seed, and increased com produc- 
tion, foreign hay and corn are about banished from most of the South. 

Some ten or fifteen years ag«\ timothy hay (rather indifferent, too. sometimes.) 
was selling in countr}- towns in Mississippi at from forty to sixty dollars per ton. 
Fine timothy hay raised near can now be bought at fitteen dollars per ton in the 
same towns. Johnson grass hay, in places, has entirely displaced all Northern hay. 

Western corn, only a few years ago. (in 1^1.) was selling in places in the 
South at one dollar and a-half on credit, and a dollar ca^. Thousands of car- 
loads were broaght in. Now, and for two years. ci>m has been worth in the same 
localities only f " rty-fiTe to fifty cents p ' ' '. It may seem queer to 

say that this is : — g. but it effectually prv' > ingress of Western com, 
and enables the fiirmer to make cheap cotton: for everything south of North. 
Ca- -^uis subordinate^!, as yet. to cotton-raising. 

a was made a little back of the improvement in agricultural methods 

South. Every one at all conversant with Southern agriculture has oteerved the 
groNvih of what is known in parts of the South as "intensive fiurming.*' Mr. 
Furman. of Georgia, worthily made a great reputation in this regard. In the 
article on Georgia, his metho^i will be given in his own language. In parts of the 
South, lands have been made to treble their former product in one and another 



INTRODUCTION. 11 

Btaple; and cotton, of late, has been produced, by the use of fertilizers, in areas 
theretofore considered unavailable for this plant. Deep ploughing, drainage, sub- 
Boiling and ditching are coming more and more into vogue, and their effects are 
seen in improved health, improved lands and larger crops. New appliances, too, 
are playing their i)art in the new agriculture of the South. The number of reapers 
and mowers, sulky cultivators, riding plows, steel plows, seeders, improved har- 
rows, manure distributors, corn and cotton planters, threshers, and other improved 
farming utensils, is wonderfid. There are districts where, only three or four years 
ago, nothing but the wooden mould-board plow Avns found, and where there were 
no sulky cultivators or steel plows, where now hardly an old-fashioned plow is to 
be found. Even clover hullers are being introduced here and there. The popu- 
'larity of all these new implements and others not mentioned is the sure forerunner 
of agricultural-implement factories, in which the cheap iron and unequalled 
Southern hard woods are sure to find a place. The inauguration of these factories 
at eligible points South otlers one of the most connnanding opportunities to 
Northern enterprise and capital. 

The new products from, or in connection with, the soil at the South within a 
few years will defy enumeration. The most i)ainstaking retlection, the most 
elaborate enumeration, would be sure to leave something unnoted. It will greatly 
assist to a better view if tney are divided into classifications, as stock raising, 
fruit raising, vegetable raising, the cultivation of grasses, and misceUaneous — the 
latter to cover poultry raising, bee culture, silk culture, jute culture, rice culture 
the culture of the cane, tobacco, mint culture, broom corn, floriculture, etc. 

Stock raising in pai-ts of the South has long been in vogue. The flue sheep 
and cattle of Virginia the Northern cities more contiguous to her have long 
known; and Kentuck}', in her "blue-grass region," has a reputation the world 
over, and has been for many years without a rival or peer in raising short-horn 
cattle and thoroughbred horses. Thither the world has long resorted for the best 
of these. Other parts of the State have eclipsed her in nude raising, and some of 
the New England States have certainly divided honors with her in the i^roduction 
of the flnest sheep. But the South, as a whole, has never been considered, is not 
yet regarded, as a stock-raising country. Before the war the census showed some 
very surprising facts about her ascendency in raising hogs and common cattle; 
but this is not to be designated "stock raising." "What is written is meant to 
apply, in this connection, to the raising of thoroughbred stock, pedigreed and 
registered. Within a few years, and even within live years, the introduction of 
registered short-horn and Jersey cattle, and their increase, has been most marked. 
Tennessee has progressed very rapidly, and other States are falling into line. In 
Jerseys, there are one or two districts in the South where, to the same number of 
breeders, there are to be found nowhere in Mie United States, perliaps, as many 
registered animals owned. East JMississippi and Mobile, Alabama, are particularly 
conspicuous. 

In a recent trip, made with the special purpose of seeing the breeders ot 
registered cattle in Georgia, Alabama and 3[ississippi, I was greatly surprised at 
the magnitude of the business of breeding registered Jirseys. The breeders of 
these States are to be numbered by scores, iuul their cattle by hundreds. One 
breeder has over two hundred head, and numbers are to be found who own 
upwards of fifty; and some of the best herds in the country are to be found 
South. In short-horns the number is far less, especially south and east of Ken 
tucky r.nd Tennessee; and North and South Carolina are very noticeably 
embarked in breeding these cattle. But it is quite certain that this breed is a 
success Soutli. notwithstanding the opinion of one or more eminent stock-raisers 
in the South to the contrary. There are several parties in the South who have 



12 INTROUiCTlON. 

some choice herds of registered short-horns. It ought to be taken as ahnost con- 
clusive, that one of the most celebrated short-horns in this country or the world— 
The Duke of Noxubee— once owned by one of the Hamiltons, of Mt. Sterling, 
Kentucky— which speaks volumes as to the animal's meiits— was bred and raised 
in Noxubee County, Mississippi, by Simeon Orr, of that county— a gentleman 
who bred and raised many other short-horns, and was considered a very great 
visionary by some of the very, very, wise men of his day in the vicinity. It is 
quite certain that this breed of cattle cannot live on the quantity of food, and 
make flesh, that a " scrub" can, and this for a time will militate against the breed ; 
but it is also (piite certain that tliere are lands in tlie South capable of producing 
sueli crojis of clover, Kentucky blue-grass, etc., that it taxes severely the credulity 
of any one not thoroughly possessed of the credibility of the thing to believe. 
On sucli l.inds, in the future stock-raising reign in the South, as fine short-horns 
as ever lived will be seen, and probably an improvement will be made on the 
year-long pasture on the most nutritious grasses, to which access can be liad in 
parts of the South. Herds of Holsteins and Devons are becoming more frequent, 
although as yet comparatively small; and thinly scattered over the South is a 
breeder here and tliere of other thoroughbred registered cattle. 

To show, for illustration, how the stock-raising sjnrit is spreading in parts of 
the South, there are four cattle-breeders' associations in Mississippi — Jersey, Hol- 
steln, Short-horn and Devon. In East Mississippi there is hardly any town, 
liowever small, that has not from one to a half-dozen breeders of thoroughbred 
registered cattle of some breed ; while all through the country they are scattered 
more or less thickly. 

Because particular mention is made of some States in the South as raising 
certain breeds of registered cattle, it is not to be inferred that the other States 
cannot or do not raise registered cattle. There is probably not a Southern State 
in which there are not one or more herds of thoroughbred registered Jerseys. As 
to grade cattle, they are numbered among the tens of thousands, of various breeds • 
in the South. Look at the immense number of high-grade short-horns in Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee and Virginia, and the large number of grades, but not so high, 
of the same breed in Texas and JNIississippi, more particularly. See the number 
of grade Jerseys in Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee, and, in less num- 
bers, in all the Southern States. Holsteins, Devons, Galloways and other breeds 
have not S(; stronglj'- made their impression, being of very recent introduction. 

Almost every breed of sheep has been tried in the South, and, with proper 
selection for lands, all breeds do well. Further South, and on the slovenly atten- 
tion generally paid them, or the utter neglect, more common still. Merinos and 
Southdowns are best, and the grades of both. One cannot— at least, ought not 
to — expect a Cotswold or Leicestershire to earn his own living; nor ought such a 
sheep, nor, indeed, any, be put upon the stiff, sticky, heavy soils of the prairies of 
East Mississippi, or the prairie tjelt of Ala])ama or Texas, in winter, without a 
thorough Bermuda sod under foot, and rolling land. Sheep must have a "dry 
foot." The fecundity and health of sheep South is a marvel. I cannot longer 
dwell here upon the topic. If the reader wants to know what tlie South offers in 
the way of eheep raising, and the leading aspects of tlie outlook South in this 
reirard, let him read Mr. John L. Hays' bulletin on sheep raising South. No 
autiiority is more eminent than Mr. Haj'S. 

The breeding of Angora goats is an industry full of promise to the South. 
There are some exceedingly choice animals of tliis breed South, and some very 
celebrated flocks. The manufactories using their hair for the fabrics of the loom 
are increasing; and it is a matter of surprise that Southern men are not realizing 
the situation better, and taking a firmer grip upon tlie business of breeding these 



INTROl) UCTION. 1 3 

animals. They really do not cost a penny to any Southern breeder ; and their 
health and fecundity — why use words on the goat ? 

The South, for the years since the war, has paid immense sums of money for 
mules. A few years ago, as the result of a calculation, it was found tliat at least 
one hundred thousand dollars had been paid by one county, by no means the 
largest, in a Southern State, in one year for this animal. It is certainly not an 
overstatement to say that the South has paid hundreds of millions of dollars for 
mules since the war. In many instances, Kentucky and Tennessee received a 
goodly share of this money; but some of the States west of the Ohio River have 
got a good deal of it. But the South is having a mind to stop this. Ten years ago 
— even less — few jacks were to be found South. Within live years, many jacks, 
some of them superb animals, have been imported, and parties are making a 
regular business of raising mules, having their own jacks for their own service. 
This is a very safe business, and has nothing but success before it ; for the South 
will always need mules, and need them more and more. The average life of a mule, 
under the care and control of a negro, no one can measure; but every Southern 
man knows that, between beating, hard riding and scant feed, it is very short. 
Then, mules cost virtually nothing to a raiser in the more Southern States, if the 
fields are at all in the shape they should be — that is, set to clover, blue-grass and 
other grasses. It would be a pleasure, although a little curious, to tell how free 
from certain diseases and ailments home-bred mules are, compared to those 
raised "West. 

The veterinarians South claim that the South is one of the best countries in 
the world to raise the best horses. They give good reasons— in longer season of 
green food or such food the year round, milder climate, and exemption from lung 
and throat troubles, etc , etc. At any rate, every sporting man well knows that 
the breeding of trotting horses and thoroughbreds is on the increase. While 
Kentucky holds the first rank, other States are " showing up " well ; and there are 
but few places in the South where there are not to be found some highly-bred 
stallions that are at the service of the community at reasonable prices ; and more 
and more are stables of thoroughbreds springing up at one and another town and 
city in the South. Let any judge of horse flesh look at the number of fine car- 
riage horses South, and he will see many home-bred as fine as those imported. 
Still, by far the larger proportion of our fine horses South are not raised here. 
There is the very finest field for breeders to come in, and keep home the money 
now going into the Western and Eastern States for fine carriage horses. The 
South is rapidly getting able to have fine horses ; and her people are free livers, 
and will have the good things of life if they have either the money or credit to 
procure them. There are few, if any, of the larger breeds, and tliere is an oppor- 
tunity for their introduction. It is quite certain that the very stiff" lands in parts 
of the South— as in the prairie country of East Mississippi— cannot be broken by 
a riding plow (as a thorough Western farmer would want it done,) by any three 
horses such as one could pick up South, without considerable selection. The 
need in that country and other similar places South is for an animal the ''get" of 
the large stallions upon the mares of the country. 

Within ten years, hog raising in the South has been revolutionized. A 
decade ago, one could hardly see anything but the unmitigated " razor-back." If 
a thoroughbred boar was to be found, it was a rare sight.* The best that could 
be looked for was a little group of grades. But now this is all changed. In 
many parts of the South you will have, to get into the "off country" before you 
can find the fleet-footed, long-nosed animal found so common everywhere a few 



•This remark must not be supposed to apply to some localities— as parts of Kentucky, for instance. 



14 INTRODVCTION. 

years ago. In the towns, wherever we travel, we see Dothing but grades or 
thoroughbreds. The Irish graziers and tlie Chester whites are very geuerally 
discarded. The former is not a good ranger; the latter docs not stand the 
climate well, most particularly as a sty-hog. This remark will certainly apply to 
the Gulf States, and may be no doul)t api)lied to the entire South, omitting possi- 
bly Virginia. The favorites are Poland Chinas, Berksliires, Essexes and Jersey 
reds. The tirst two are thoroughly disseminated and tried, and there are quite a 
number of registered Berksliires with us. The Essex is a comparatively late 
acquisition, thorouglily connnended, first-rate, and winning friends wherever 
known. Tiie Jersey red is a safe hog and suited to the South, but it is such a 
late acquaintance, there is little can be said about it. 

Grass raising is a corollary of stock raising. They are, as it were, correla- 
tives. We must have grass to raise stock, if our efforts as a section are to rise '.o 
the dignity of a stock-breeding country ; and we will have stock if we raise grass. 
For many years I have been a most watchful observer of the grasses South. In 
many places I have sown the seeds of one species and another, carrying them in 
the pocket, and scattering often only a pinch here and there. My views about 
grasses will be found under that caption in the article on Mississippi. It is only 
desired here to give some facts there not referred to. 

Some three years ago I was urging upon the stock-breeders about Mobile the 
policy of sowing orchard, red top, blue, white clover and other grasses on their 
sandy lands, assuring them they would do tolerably well — not, of course, like 
richer, stiffer lands, with considerable lime in them, but far better than nothing. 
These entreaties had no effect, so far as was known; so I bought a pound or two 
of lawn grass seed one day, and scattered them, under cover of the night, in the 
pul)lic square in Mobile, between Saint Francis and Dauphine streets. Recently 
while on a visit to Mobile, happening by there, I went into the square to 
look for results. I had not been there since sowing— bay three years anterior. 
I found some beautiful "^ catches" of blue-grass and orchard, particularly the 
former ; and last season was very dry. There was a little blue-grass in the lawn 
before ; but I aimed to scatter my seed where there was no grass. 

The other was an experience had on a trip in November, 1884, in visiting the 
various prominent breeders of cattle in the Gulf States; in Georgia, about Rome, 
Cohutta, Atlanta, Calhoun, etc. In all these places and others blue-grass was 
found "taking" the roadsides and farms — in almost every place coming in without 
seeding. On some forms it had been seeded — as at Mr. Richard Peters', and Mr. 
J. B. Wade's, the owner of Tenella. On the farm of Mr. B. Woodward, at 
Cohutta, Ga., it had not been seeded; nor had it been seeded, probably, anywhere 
in all tlie numberless roadside places it was seen. Indeed, it is the common grass 
on all the outlying lots about Atlanta, and one can see persons sodding the lawns 
Avith this sod taken from the vacant lots around the city. This surely ought to 
settle the question about blue-grass, {poa pratensis.) It is mentioned here for its 
curiousness, that in a long fight between alfalfa and blue-grass on Mr. Richard 
Peters' farm, the blue-grass is gradually winning. The fight has been going on 
many years. There was seen in many places, also, some superb orchard grass; 
but this had been seeded, of course. 

As a matter of experience, valuable to all who may think of Georgia as a 
future home, it may be stated that Mr. Wade, of Atlanta, has no silo. His cattle 
are on his blue-grass, orchard glass, etc., summer and winter, and have been all 
these years. Of course, he has hay for rainy and cold days. 

Is it necessary to say how the grasses here spoken of seem perfectly at home 
in the mountains and valleys of East and Central Tennessee, of Western North 
and South Carolina, of Virginia, and of Kentucky? If the reader wants elabo 



INTRODUCTION. 15 

Tate proof, he is referred to the article on Mississippi, wliere enough is given, it is 
lioped, on tlie topic to convince the most skeptical, and that, too, with relation to 
a different country, mainly. What is here given is a short chapter out of a new 
experience. 

Fruit raising as a vocation "was hardly known South until after the war. 
Before tlie war many had their orcliards of one fruit and another ; but it would 
have been considered then utterly petty and contemptible to have raised fruit and 
sold it — as beneath any gentleman! Thirty-five years ago this was precisely the 
view in Delaware. But inmiediately after the war, fruit raising Ijegan as a busi- 
ness South. The influence wave broke across the narrow boundary of sea 
between the peninsula on which Delaware and the Eastern Shores of Maryland 
and Virginia are situated, and Norfolk, Virginia, and deluged the latter locality 
with a fruit-raising sentiment. Small fruit was "set" in large quantities, and 
soon grew to large proportions. Before the war some other fruit had been 
planted; and one gentleman had secured both wealth and eminence from a pear 
orchard of his planting that had an almost national reputation. Delaware and 
Maryland soon felt the influence of the competition of Norfolk in ihe decreased 
prices brought by their fruit. (The writer, then living in Dover, Delaware, and 
raising fruit largely, well remembers this.) Very quickly, wide-awake Dela- 
wareans strove to get ahead of Norfolk, and moved further South — even as far 
down as Wilmington, North Carolina — and " set " strawberries. So the spirit grew. 

About the close of the war, possibly in the fall of 1865, Dr Clayton A. Cow- 
gill, of Dover, Delaware, moved on the Saint John's River, in Florida, and went 
at once largely into the business of orange raising. It is stated that while num- 
berless persons had raised oranges for fruit and as a pastime, he was the first who 
did it as a scheme for money-making. About the same time, Mrs. Harriet Beecher 
Stowe went down on the Saint John's River, in Florida, and began writing those 
letters in its praise which set the whole North in a blaze of enthusiasm, and soon 
drew thither the capital and immigration with an ever-swelling flood since. 
Except Mr. Charles Nordhoff's letters and book on Southern California, there has 
been no approximation, in the building up of a State b}' a single pen, to the influ- 
ence of IMrs. Stowe's literary v>"ork in behalf of Florida. Who shall tell of the 
development of Florida in fruit culture ? Who can fix its boundaries ? Who can 
depict the transformation scenes of the trackless pine woods into orange bowers, 
citron groves, pineapple plantations, banana farms, and what not ? Let the reader 
turn to the article on Florida for a bewildering list of strange and tropical fruits 
there grown. 

But while Florida is great, not only on account of the magnitude of her 
business in fruit culture, and especially in the magnitude of a fruit culture pos- 
sible to only a limited area of the country, she is b}-^ no means the only State fiir 
South wiiich is conspicuous by fruit culture. Georgia, greatly through the influ- 
ence of her celebrated citizen, Mr. P. J. Berckmans, is raising a great deal of fruit, 
pears especiall}'-, and a goodly quantity of peaches and apples and small fruits, 
and is a leader among Southern States. Along the Jackson Railroad, (Southern 
Branch of the Illinois Central,) in the pine woods of Mississippi, and about and 
above Canton, there is a very considerably developed fruit-raising interest; and 
Southwestern Tennessee is Avell advanced, too. But it is impossible to i^articu- 
larize in full. It may be stated in brief, that there is no Southern State in which 
fruit raising is not more or less prosecuted as a vocation; that in some States it is 
a very considerable interest and quite a source of revenue, and that all fruit raising 
South as a vocation or with a view to money-making has obtained since the war. 
For further information on fruits, the reader is referred to the article on Missis- 
sippi, where the toj^ic is treated at some length. 



16 IN Tli OB I T ' Tl ON. 

The growth of melon raising has attained such dimensions within the last 
year or two as to be astounding, particularly in Georgia; and in Arkansas it is 
quite a large business. This, too, as a business, is a new thmg to the South, and 
when not overdone, proves lucrative. 

Vegetable raising or "trucking" is an immense business South, and it 
stretches from Norfolk to the Gulf of Mexico, well down into Florida. A very 
long and interesting chapter might be written on its growth, and figures might be 
given to prove its magnitude. At Norfolk, Va., it takes a large steamer per day 
to transport what that vicinity sends to New York City alone. All along the 
Atlantic coast to and in Florida, trains and steamers are well laden for months 
with early vegetables. From New Orleans, La., go great quantities. Mississippi, 
along the Illinois Central Eailroad, sends considerable quantities, as does South- 
western Tennessee. Mobile, Ala., has become the most considerable vegetable 
raising area in the South, with, perhaps, one or two exceptions. There the 
business amounts to millions of dollars per annum. Years ago, hundreds of 
car-loads were sent every season over the Mobile and Ohio Railroad alone. Ten 
years ago, only two or three were engaged in this business about Mobile, and 
only one gentleman at all considerably — one who still holds a most prominent 
position there in trucking. Mobile used to import cabbages, because it was 
supposed that they could not be raised there. Now she sends off every year to 
Western markets from one to three hundred or more car-loads of early cabbages. 
What a revolution in ideas and business ! Almost every vegetable possible to the 
climate is grow^n. No enumeration can be made of all the more considerable 
localities where "trucking" is a vocation. Suffice It to say, that all this business 
of raising vegetables for the early market North and West is a new thing to the 
South — as to anything considerable, the growth of the last decade. Even a very 
small proportion of the vegetables consumed at home was ever raised South untU 
of late. Even now there is a large field for raising late vegetables for home con- 
sumption South. Many erroneous notions exist, and must be combatted. It 
would be entirely conjectural to estimate the magnitude of the vegetable business 
in the South, but every one conversant with it knows that it is one of the most 
considerable and lucrative of the new enterprises South; that the returns for 
sales are well into the millions of dollars; that many thousands of acres are 
devoted to the crop, and that thousands of gardeners find employment in it. 

Having T)riefly considered as new industries South, stock raising, grass raising, 
the raising of fruits and vegetables, I pass to a very cursory consideration of those 
products enumerated under the title " miscellaneous." 

Taking the topics up in their order, it may be said of poultrj^ that the raising 
of various breeds for sale is affording vocations to a few people in the vai-ious 
Southern States. This aspect is new and has been profitable, but is quickly over- 
done. It is hardly necessary to attempt an enumeration of the breeds raised. 
The list is very large. Poultry raising South ought to be and is profitable. The 
cost is jilmost nothing, generally— chickens finding food by ranging. If parties 
would sow, as they ought, grass, cost of feed would be merely nominal the year 
round in most of the South, as Northern grasses grow most of the winter, and in 
summer the Southern grasses are almost always green. Poultry are generally 
healthy. They need watching in summer, occasionally, to be relieved of the red 
bug. Setting fowls need to be attended to sometimes, to be saved from lice, and 
in very hot weather, the eggs need an occasional sprinkling. But, all told, all the 
year through, the South is unexcelled as a poultry-raising country. Chickens, 
well South, will lay most of the year, with proper food or range. The broods 
come off early. Eggs are higher in price, on an average, than North. The 
expense is next to nothing of raising. There will probably be some day a 



INTRODUCTION. 17 

considerable business in raising early chickens for Northern markets. Turkeys 
are remarkable lor health and beauty. Geese, it is manifest, will yield much 
more profitable crops of feathers South than North. The beauty of plumage of 
Southern fowls and birds is commonly remarked by all attentive observers. 

Bee culture is quite a little business in parts of the South. The length of 
season in much of the area gives much longer time for increase in numbers and 
collection of honey. In the extreme South there is hardly any time when some 
plant or flower is not in bloom from which a bee can extract honey ; and in mucli 
of Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas, tlicre are few 
bright days in winter in which the bee is not in pursuit of his "balmy spoils;" 
and if he be gifted with discrimination, he must be a happy reveler ; for into what 
flowers he dips! The white clover (trifolium Tej)ens) is indigenous, or, at least, 
spontaneous, many places South, and blooms early and during much of the j^ear, 
and this is a fine field for honey gathering. Honey seldom sells at less than 
twenty-five cents per pound anywhere. 

Silk culture is rather a revived, than a new, industry South. Before the 
Revolutionary War, Georgia and South Carolina had made quite a growth in 
the business, but the war discontinued it, and cotton soon overshadowed and 
smothered it South. The Moms MulticauUs craze and the fiasco of about forty 
years ago disgusted everybody, and silk culture has slept until late. In the 
articles on Mississippi and North Carolina will be found matter more at large — 
one from the pen of Mr. Fasnach — particularly in the article on the latter State. 
It is the judgment of the best informed that no part of the world surpasses, if it 
equals, much of the South. The mulberry suits the climate admirably. One or 
more species are indigenous in parts of the South. The worm is very healthy 
here. Almost every inducement any country can ofler, the South aff'ords. The 
fallacy that the South can't raise silk in competition with the very cheap labor of 
Japan and China is easily refuted by the answer that Southern women and 
children, who could earn money from silk culture, can compete, because any 
earnings are better than nothing. If there were a demand for their labor at 
prices similar to the worth of similar labor North, the argument would be good ; 
but these women and children who could earn monej^ from silk culture now earn 
nothing. There are various organizations South which seek to develop silk cul- 
ture. One in New Orleans, La., called the " Southern Silk Industrial Association," 
has been agitating the matter some time. Its president is Mr. Theophile Harang; 
secretary, Miss Caroline Hubbard; general manager and superintendent, Mrs. 
Emma B. Johnson— the last of whom has written a book on the subject, which 
can be had for fifty cents. In and about this city last year and this, considerable 
silk has been reeled and dyed and many thousands of worms raised. There ought 
to be a large filature here and silk manufactories. The silk business finds a most 
congenial population here. At Corinth, Mississippi, Mrs. Docke has a filature, 
and purchases cocoons. Her silk and cocoons on exhibition in the Government 
Building in the AVorld's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, in the 
Mississippi Department, are well worth seeing. Every judge can see that the size 
and quality of cocoons miproves in this country, in comparison with much of 
Europe. 

Jute raising has passed the stage of experimentation. Mr. C. Menelas, of 
Brookhaven, Miss., on his farm there, has raised it successfully, and growers 
elsewhere in Mississippi and Louisiana have tested it. The belief in it is so 
thorough that a jute growers' association was organized a year or two ago, with 
Gen'l S. D. Lee as president. The only need is a perfect machine to decorticate 
the fibre. One or more have been tried and commended. But I advise no one to 



18 INTRODUCTION. 

raise the plant, except in a small way, j-et. In the article on Mississippi the 
reader may find something more on jute. 

Rice culture, before the war, was almost monopolized by South Carolina. Her 
swamp lands were at their best. Since the war Louisiana has raised considerable 
iowland rice. These two States raise the most of the rice of that species; but 
upland rice is to be found in many parts of the South, and is giving great satis- 
faction. Georgia is giving considerable attention to it. In Mississippi, too, the 
culture is spreading. We see it along the gulf c <ast, too, in Alabama. As rice is 
a staple, the South has acquired a new good in the production of it; especially is 
upland rice a new product. 

The cultivation of the sugar-cane, although not new as to a part of the South, 
is new as to much of it. Louisiana used to be almost the exclusive producer of it. 
But considerable Louisiana sugar-cane, so called, is produced in other Southern 
States. Very little sugar is made from it, except for home use ; but considerable 
molasses of most delicious quality is produced in the aggregate. Good pme lands 
will produce, in southern parts of Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, from two 
hundred and fifty to three hundred gallons of molasses per acre. In Louisiana, 
some lands will produce four thousand pounds of sugar per acre, and quantities 
of land, three thousand. 

Mint culture is an entirely new business South. It is a success. The pioneer 
only needs some capital to make it a ver}^ lucrative business. Tausey and hore- 
hound will prove quite as successful, probably ; and in a few years one may look 
to see farms " set" in these herbs and others at various places in the South, and a 
profitable business done, on a limited scale, in distilling essential oils from them. 

Broom-corn growing offers, in parts of the South, good inducements. Some 
years ago I thoroughly inspected this matter, with reference to the eligibility of 
the prairies of East Mississippi, with a celebrated raiser — Mr. Bogardus, of 
Champaign, 111. He found that the quality would be as good as the Kansas 
broom corn, and the quantity per acre raised equal, if not superior, to any place 
of which he knew. This industry and the manufacturing of brooms ought to 
progress rapidly, and some day will have adequate consideration by those who 
are looking South for openings. 

Floriculture as a vociition is only beginning to command attention from 
adepts here and there. It is difficult to see why the South cannot sell a good 
many more tube-roses, camellias, roses and other flowers than she does to the 
North and West. We are not so far off; and as we can have these flowers in the 
open air and on cheap lands, I hope to see more of it. Near the large cities in the 
South quite a business is being done for home supply; and it is an unspeakable 
charm to meet on all our crowded thoroughfares, in winter, the colors and 
perfumes of flowers. 

Raising ramie is next to nothing South. Some twelve years ago I first saw 
it raised by some gentleman in Mississippi whose name has been forgotten. As 
it is a plant very little known, the following information concerning it from Col. 
Daniel Dennett, in the New Orleans Picaj^une of Januaiy 12, 1885, will be of 
interest: 

" The New York Dr}^ Goods Bulletin and Textile Manufacturer of December 
20 contains an interesting article from the i)en of Henry Sandlord J3ergman on 
'Practical Results of Ramie Culture,' from which we copy the following encour- 
aging paragraphs: 

'"For several years tbe farmers in the northern part of France have raised 
ramie as a better paying culture than that of wine. 

" ' Three crops can'be raised in a year — in the middle of the months of June» 
August and October. 



IN TROD UCTION. 19 

" ' The three crops will amount, in a good season, to 90,000 kilograms per 
^cre, worth $475 

'"The cost of roots, pltmting nnd labor amounts to about 6,000 francs per 
acre in the first year. In the following years no cost, except for labor, will be 
incurred, as the ramie plant is perennial. 

" ' The decorticating and baling of tlie fibres is generally done on the spot, 
under a shed. The stalks are sold tor 8 francs per 100 kilograms.' 

"Mr. Roetzel, soon after the war, brought ramie roots from Mexico to Louis- 
iana, and planted and sold many i«)»ots. Mr, A, B. Bacon, of the New Orleans 
Picayune, took a lively interest in the enterprise, and ventilated it freely in the 
columns of this journal. At that time the belief was general that ramie would 
be more profitable on the rich lands of Southern Louisiana than either sugar or 
cotton. Ramie will grow in this soil as well as in the best soil of France or 
Algeria. Nobody ever questioned either the v alue of the fibre or the wonderiul 
3deld which may be obtained from the alluvial lands of the Gulf States. The 
machine to prepare the fibre fbr market is all that has been wanting, and we have 
not quite got hold of that machine up to the present time. T. Albee Smith, I 
think, has come closer up to the mark than any other; and he has a mechanical, 
matte r-of- tact talent which, it ap])ears to me, must lead to ultimate success. There 
is nothing visionary about Jiim; he is cool and calculatim:'; he searches for bottom 
facts; has a thorough knowledge of fibres in all latitudes, and has none of the 
lofty notions of Col. Sellers, that 'there's millions in it.' He will have a machine 
at the great Industrial Exhibition in this city. He is here, and will remain here, 
to help solve the question in regard to the fibre interests of this country. 

"Not many years after ramie was brought to this city from Mexico, Dr. 
Knapp planted a large surface, and had a field at one time of more than fifty 
acres, near New Orleans, if I remember correctly. He was vei'v hopeful for many 
years that this would become one of the leading agricultural interests of the State 
and of the South. The ji eld per acre was l)ountiful and entirely satisfactory. A 
machine was all that was needed to make this industry very successful. After Dr. 
Knapp's death, his son, a dentist of this city, kept up the cultivation to some 
extent, and still cultivates this crop, believing that the much needed machine will 
soon make its appearance. 

"Mr. Emile Lefranc, of this city, invented a ramie machine many j'ears ago; 
others in the State invented machines, but none of them have proved successful. 
Mr. Lefranc after^vnrd experimented with chemicals in separating the pure ramie 
fibre from all gummy ■ ■■' ■O'v-ign matter, with considerable success. He now 
lives in Phihidelphia'" 

I have been shown some of the fabrics of the loom made from this plant. 

They are exceedingly soft and beautiful, and such close imitations of sealskin as 

to deceive almost any one at a little distance. 

IRON INTERESTS. 
Let us look a little now at the South^with reference to some of her minerals, 
of which iron is among those ofl tlie first importance. As this book is for the 
trans-Atlantic reader as well as the American, I shall give some views from 
English authorities as to competition of the United States with Great Britain. I 
quote from a pamphlet entitled " The Hill Country of Alabama, U. S. A.; or, The 
Land of Rest." This is a work devoted to showing the resources of Alabama, 
but, incidentally, it contains much interesting collateral matter. On page 2, et 
seq.y we find a statement of the aims of the w^ork as follows : 

"It is desired to address some distinct prefatory remarks to two classes of 
readers, namely: 

"(a.) To those interested in the iron and coal industries of Great Britain. 

"The testimony collected from impartial and reliable sources in the first two 
chapters of the following pages proves beyond possibility of doubt that the 
present period of depression in these important industries in Great Britain is not 
due to a mere monetary crisis, but to causes far more deeply seated. An actual 
revolution has taken place, and the resulrs may be shortly stated as follows : 

" 1. The entire loss of the American market for both crude and manufac- 
tured iron. 

''2. ^ The growth of American metallurgy, enabling it to compete with Grea.t 
Britain in many of her best markets. 



20 INTRODUCTION. 

" 3. The supersession of iron by steel — the latter being universally recognized 
as the 'metal of the future' — and as a necessary consequence, disturbance and 
disorganization in the chief centres of industry within Great Britain itself. 

"4. The enforced introduction of new processes and enlarged works, in 
Bbeer self-defence, by all old-established works. 

"5. A struggle for existence, which has already resulted in more than one- 
third of the English and Scotch furnaces being out of blast, with an agitation for 
a diminished output by tlic remainder. 

"G. An increasing export from the Cleveland district to foreign countries, 
especially Germany, thereby forcing their smelting furnaces out of blast, and 
constituting them makers of cheap finished iron in successful competition with 
our more expensive articles of manufacture. 

"The foregoing drawbacks are further attended with a strife between British 
capital and labor, which, in the opinion of many competent authorities, can only 
be successfully met by the introduction of Chinese or Japanese workmen, 

"In such a state of affairs, three things are unmistakably clear: 

" 1st. Tiiat an immense amount of capital and labor, both skilled and 
unskilled, has been rendered unproductive by reason of a reckless disregard of 
the laws which regulate sound progress in trade and healthy competition. 

"2d. That things have come to such a pass, that it is not merely the ill- 
conditioned and badly-managed works which must succumb in favor of those 
possessing superior advantages, but that even the latter, in view of the altered 
condition of the trade, are threatened with a severe struggle for continued 
existence. 

" 3d. That there is nothing left but to submit to the inevitable, and acknowl- 
edge the inexorable law of 'the survival of the fittest.' Any attempt to prolong 
by any temporary expedient, such as a general reduction of output, the existence 
of works unequal to the crisis, must end in their entire extinction, instead of 
simple elimination. 

" For capital and labor so situated there can be no alternative but to realize 
while there is a chance of getting free, and to seek another chance of successful 
competition by occupying new fields of enterprise where the conditions of 
employment are more favorable. 

" The causes (above enumerated) which have led to the present condition of 
these British industries point to the United States as the sphere where such new 
fields exist; and it is also plain, from the weighty testimony of the eminent 
geologists and men of science here quoted, that these are to be found, in a 
measure, unequalled even on the American Continent, in that region of Alabama 
to which we desire to direct public attention," 

The author then proceeds to support his assertions. Treating of " The Rapid 
Development of the Coal and Iron Industries in the United States," he says: 

"Without endorsing entirely the opinion expressed by Professor Boyd 
Dawkins on the 18th of December last, at the Manchester Geological Society, 
' that inasmuch as the United States have by far the largest supply of coal of any 
country in the world, we must look upon that country as the centre to which all 
British industrial enterprise must ultimately converge,' we ask our readers to 
accept implicitly the argument of another eminent professor, (Professor Prichard 
at the last Brighton Congress,) that the co-existence of all the essentially indepen- 
dent existences, viz: stores of iron and coal and sulphur and silica ready for the 
use of man in any particular region, such as is here shown to co-exist in Alabama, 
is the evidence of a pre-established harmony, the result of a prescient will, and 
that, sooner or later, it is destined to be the seat of a large population equal to 
any which the same existences have called into being." 

Passing on, we come to where Mr. Lowthian Bell is quoted: 

"'In area of coal-bearing strata, the United States, according to present 
information, rank far above every other nation — the estimated superficial contents 
of its coal fields being about 200,00 ) square miles, against 8.000 in Great Britain; 
the fuel contained in those fields being quite as pure and quite as suitable for iron 
purposes as the average of tne produce of our British collieries; whilst the 
facilities for working bituminous seams, owing to the stratification and the inter- 
section of the surface of the country by valleys, admitting of the coal being 
worked by adits or drifts, enable the seams to be reached at very little cost — 2,0001. 
in many cases sufficing for an opening capable of affording 300 to 400 tons per 
day. I heard of bituminous obtained so easily that, delivered at the pit's mouth, 
its cost did not exceed 3s. per ton ; but looking over the long series of figures I 



INTRODUCTION. 21 

collected, I feel that an average of 5s. will amply represent all expenses, including 
say 6d. per ton for royalty, of working bituminous coal in the United States. No 
one with any acquaintance with the cost of coal in Great Britain will be disposed 
to consider that we enjoy any advantage in tliis important element, of which 
something like thirty-five to forty millions of tons are at present required in our 
iron works.'" 

The above is from Mr. Bell's report as president of group No. 1, at the Phila- 
delphia (Centennial) Exhibition in 187G. 

Omitting an interesting review of the "Iron and Steel Trade of America," I 
pass to where he speaks of the United States m " competition with Great Britain in 
all the markets of the world for manufactured iron." On page 16 the author says : 

" In the year 1875 Mr. Lowthian Bell, after his first visit to the United 
States, read a paper before the Iron and Steel Institute of Great Britain, in which 
he described exhaustively not only the existing iron works in the United States, 
but also the geographical position and general nature of the fuel, ores, and other 
materials required in the manufacture ot iron. Little as the mineral resources of 
the South, and especially of Alabama, were then known, they came in for a large 
share of his attention, and so much impressed was he with their extraordinary 
extent and character that, w^hilst stating his then conclusion, 'that it is a physical 
impossibility that iron can be made more cheaply in the United States than it can 
in England,' he thought it necessary to qualify the statement by the Ibllowing 
. saving^lause: ' So far I am taking no account of the comparatively undeveloped 
resources of Tennessee, Georgia and Alabama, which will, as I have already 
indicated, prove a match for any part of the world in the production of cheap 
iron. But Mr. Bell goes on further, * there seems every reason for believing that pig 
iron can now belaid down in the Southern States mentioned above, at little above 
half the cost of that made in the North,' and he subsequently adds the following 
warning to the iron-masters of the Northern States: 'In a political point of 
view no argument can be, as I believe none will be, advanced by the North 
ajjainst the development of the iron resources of the Southern States, and yet it 
is' by no means impossible that some less favorably situated works in the former 
may suffer more by the competition which, before long, may spring up nearer, 
than from any that we in this country (Great Britain) are able to offer.' * * * 

"Mr. Lowthian Bell, having again visited the United States in May, 1876, as 
the British Judge in the department of Minerals, Mining and Metallurgy, inclu- 
ding Machinery, at the Philadelphia Exhibition, has since made to the British 
Government a still more elaborate report on the iron manufacture of the United 
States, and a comparison of it with that of Great Britain, in Avhich he now makes 
the following comparisons as to the relative richness and purity of ores of the 
United States and of Great Britain: 'The average production of iron in the 
latter, will be a trifle under 35 per cent., whereas, the produce of the mines of the 
United States will be about 56 per cent., which means that for each ton of iron 
made, there is 20 per cent, less ore to be dealt with by the American iron master than 
by ourselves. Less than 12* per cent, of the total quantity of ore raised in Great 
Britain is fit for the Bessemer works, equal to about 17 per cent, of the annual 
value of pig iron; whereas, in the United States almost one-third of the produce 
of its mines is sufficiently free from phosphorus to furnish iron fit for Bessemer 
purposes,' and he further records his unhesitating opinion that the American 
manufacturers are as fully alive as ourselves to the importance of careful study of 
the natural laws which influence their various processes and affect the quality of 
the products, and that every improvement which experience had mastered in this 
country was carefally noted by American metallurgists, and any defect in existing 
arrangements was corrected in the magnificent steelworks and rail mills, which 
since then have been constructed in the United States. 

"The general conclusions which this eminent authority arrives at in this 
report to the British Government, are : 

" ' That the powers of iron production in the United States are already equal 
to any possible requirements of the country itself 

" ' That although markets may be opened for American iron in countries con- 
tiguous to the United States, he does not expect that the continent of Europe, 
much less Great Britain, will ever be purchasers of the metal, m any of its 
unmanuf\ictured forms, produced in the interior of America, regard being had to 
present prices and to the position of the present known sources of supply of the 
raw materials there.' 



22 INTUOD UCTION 

" The admission here made that articles of iron and steel of American manu- 
facture maj^ probably find a market in Europe, ought to satisfy every reasonable 
American iron-master, but the saving clause at the end requires to be specially noted 
as going to the root of the whole matter, which it is tlie object of these pages to 
enforce, namely, that successful competition, whether local or international, can 
only be secured in these days by every iron-master, whether smelter or malleable 
iron manufacturer, being the owner of all or some of the raw materials so as to 
place himself beyond the reach of those causes which, as Mr. Bell demonstrates, 
have reacted on the value of the raw material, and, in conjunction with the 
increased demands of labor, have produced the recent crisis in the United States 
as well as in Great Britain. These causes iirc investigated most minutely by Mr. 
Bell in tlie body of his report, and may be shortly stated to be as follows : 

" ' Owing to the fact that furnace owners in America, as a rule, did not possess 
their own collieries and mines, they were at the mercy of the owners of coal and 
iron ore. The former being the coal producing and coal transporting companies,, 
raised coal to a famine price, and the mines of the Intter proved wholly inade- 
quate to meet the increased demand from the new furnaces, Avhicli, under the 
influence of high prices, had come into existence.' " 

I have quoted from this English book, addressed to English readers. Its 
arguments in favor of an American state, Alabama, are taken from the highest 
authorities among English writers and scientists. For these reasons they are 
used. They are above suspicion. They are not the vaunts of a citizen of the 
United States about his country, but the hardly wu*ung concessions of patriotic 
Englishmen as to the United States. In one sense it would be more to my pur- 
pose to quote later authorities as to the status of the United States and Great 
Britain and their present antagonisms, and the probabilities of future competitions ; 
but in another sense my purpose is better served by quoting what, in view of the 
marvellous development the United States, in the regard in question has made 
within ten years, appear very antiquated views. The fact that some of Mr. 
Bell's prophecies have not only been fulfilled, but surpassed, gives to his unfulfilled 
predictions an authority that must command great deference. Another advantage 
gained in quoting these old previews of Americanism is, that there can be no 
questionings in the most conservative or even skeptical of trans- Atlantic readers, 
as to what the United States now is. Every reader, at all informed as to the 
matter in question, knows that as to what has been fulfilled, Mr. Bell's predic- 
tions are understatements. 

And now the argument is, that if the United States is to become, or has 
become, such a competitor of Great Britain, mainly through the development of 
the coal and iron industries North, a fortiori will the South become her competitor 
and that of the w^orld; since she has, even at this early stage of her development, 
become the competitor of the North in the production of pig iron and its sale in. 
the very markets of the North. 

Tlie growth of the iron interests of the South during the bst few years has 
been the marvel of the age, attracting the attention of the entire busin: ss world. 
History records no such stupendous developments in t' e o\l world or m the 
North in iron making as we have seen m the Southern Slr.tes since 1880, or more 
correctly since 1884. Prior to 1884 the iron mnsters of the Noith aflected to de- 
spise the possibilities of iron malang in the South. Even M'hen Soutln rn i-on 
commenced to invade the mavkeis of Phladc'lpliia,Ncw York, Boston, Pit'.sburgli, 
and other Eastern and AYcstern cities that had been monopolized by Northern 
iron, they claimtd to be indifferent, saying that the "competition" from Southern 
iron was duii so'.ely to the contraction of the natural marki t therefor, ait'.ed by ex- 
ceptionally low freight rates; that both causes would dii-appep.r with the revival 
of trade, and tliv.t the receipts were due to the pressure on Southern makers to 
dispose of surplus production. The Soi.th and Soutliwest, it was explained, were 
scantily supplied with foundries and miils; that existing depression in trade had- 



INTR OD UCTION. 23 

shut down many of those that had been the steady customers of Southern furnaces, 
and that the surplus output was therefore obliged to seek other outlets; that the 
trade stagnation had its effect on the railways, steamboats (coasting) and sailing 
vessels, and reduced their charges for freight ; that Southern pig-iron makers were 
thereby enabled to send iron North Avhen they woukl not otherwise be able so to 
do, but that tliey could not when consumption of products generally became more 
active and produced an advance in freights. Southern furnaces, they said, and 
how often did the writer hear this, were losing money on eveiy ton of pig ii'on 
they shipped North. In less tlian two years there has been a revolution in the 
feelings of Northern iron men as regards the iron interests of the South. It has 
been seen that instead of furnace owners losing money, as w:is claimed, they were 
steadily becoming richer and as rapidly as possible enlarging their productive 
capacity by building new furnaces. As one company after another commenced 
the erection of additional furnaces, and as the shipments of pig iron North steadily 
increased. Northern iron makers were forced to admit that they had underesti- 
mated the iron possibilities of the South. Mr. Samuel Thomas, of the great 
Thomas Iron Company, of Pennsylvania, after thoroughly investigating the ad- 
vantages of Alabama for the cheap production of iron, concluded to build furnaces 
near Birmingham, and he and his associates organized a $1,000,000 company which 
is now putting up one furnace, with the plant so arranged that others can be 
added after this is finished. This move attracted wide attention, for it was the 
strongest possible endorsement of what the press and the people of the South 
had so persistently claimed. During 1886 new companies organized to build 
furnaces were formed so rapidly as to fairly bewilder one who attempts to keep 
the run of new enterprises, and at this writing there aie no indications of any 
letup in the stupendous developments that eacli day brings foith in the South. 
The center of the greatest activity has been in Alabama and Tennessee, but in 
Virginia plans are being matured for gigantic iron enterprises that promise to 
make the Southwestern part of that State, so rich in mineral resources, rival to 
some extent the first two Sttdes in the manufacture of iron and steel. 

The vast developments that are now being made in the iron interests of the 
South will be best appreciated by a summary of some of the most important enter- 
prises now under way. The Pratt Coal & Iron Company, and the Tennessee 
Coal, Iron & Railroad Company, which were consolidated in 1886 with a capital 
stock of $10,000,000, have five farnaces in operation, are now building five more,, 
and will also erect steel works. Four of these furnaces and the steel works will be 
located at the new town of Ensley, near Birmingham, and one will be added to the 
three owned by this company at South Pittsburgh. The magnitude of the busi- 
ness carried on l-ythis great corporation is seen from a recent letter from the 
manager to the Manufacturers' Record, in which it is stated that with their five 
furnaces they are now turning out more iron than the Thomas Iron Company, of 
Pennsvlvania, with its twelve, and that they are shipping iron to Canada, Connec- 
ticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Cali- 
fornia, Utah, Nevatla, Montana, Texas, and all the intervening States and Terri- 
torii s. The Sloss Fuinace Company, of Birmingham, having a capital stock of 
$500,000, lately sold out their ent.re propc rty for $2,000,000 to the Sloss Iron »fe 
Steel Company, which has a capital, including bonds, of $5,000,000. This com- 
pany now has two furnaces, and has contracted for the building of two more, be- 
sides a steel plant. A well-known Pennsylvania iron maker, who a few months 
ago, as he stood on one of the mountains of iron at Birmingham, was forced to ex- 
claim in view of what he saw, "it costs me in Pennsylvania $15 to $16 to make a 
ton of iron, while I can make it here for $7.50," has lately headed a company with 
a capital of $1,500,000 to build two furnaces, coke ovens, &c., just where he stood 



24 INTRODUCTION. 

"When making this remark. The De Bardeleben Coal & Iron Company, with a 
capital of $2,000,000, is building two furnaces and will probably erect a steel plant 
at the new town of Bessemer. The Coalburg Coal & Coke Company has increas- 
ed its capital from $500,000 to $700,000 for the purpose of building a furnace. A 
$3,000,000 company has decided to build three furnaces at Florence, Alabama, and 
develop other industries, while at Sheffield five furnaces of 125 tons capacity are un- 
der contract to be built ; and at South Pittsburgh, Tennessee, two 120-ton furnaces, 
besides one included in the five to be built by the Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad 
Company, arc to be put up. Plans are being formed for building a number of fur- 
naces at Decatur, Alabama. The Williamson Iron Companj^ has just built one fur- 
nace at Birmingham. The Woodwards, of Wheeling, Alabama, have added another 
to their plant, and one has lately been completed at Aetna, Tennessee. A $200,000 
Chattanooga company will build a 100-ton furnace ; one is under construction at 
Ashland, Kentucky, and one in Virginia, and two are to be built at Nashville, 
while a number of other companies, with capital ranging from $5''0,000 up 
to $5,000,000 in one case, have been organized in Southwest Virgiuia, Ten- 
nessee and Alabama to develop coal and iron ore property, build furnaces, 
&c., which have not yet fully matured their plans. At Auniston, Alabama, 
which has been aptly called the "Model City of the South," so perfect is 
it in all its appointments, gigantic enterpiises are taking shape. Of this beauti- 
ful town lion. Wm. D. Kelley, of Pennsylvania, in his recent article in the 
Manufacturers' Record upon the industrial progress of the South, as sec n during 
his visit to Alabama and Tennessee, in December, 1886, wrote: "I venture the 
prediction that though Anniston has never had a 'boom,' and its planting and de- 
velopment have been managed so quietly that its name is hardly recognized hj the 
popular ear, it will, before two decades shall have passed, be one of the most re- 
markable centers of iron, steel and kindred industries to be found in those wonder- 
fully endowed States, G-corgia, Alabama and Tennessee." Already this prediction 
seems sure of fulfillment. T^e Woodstock Iron & Steel Company, which founded 
this town, built its furnaces and factories, its magnificent Anniston Inn, widely 
known as one of the most beautiful and perfect hotels to be found in the country, 
its electric light and water works, laid out its streets and encouraged the develop- 
ment of many industries, has made arrangements for the immediate construction 
of two coke furnaces of 1,000 tons weekly capacity each, which will be the largest 
in the South, and the building of a direct rail line to Gadsden. Several other com- 
panies have been organized to erect furnaces at the same place, and at one bound 
Anniston has sprung into the widest notoriety, and gives promise now of fully 
rivalling, within a year or two, the tremendous industrial progress that has made 
Birmingham known throughout the world. It is reported that arrangements are 
I)eing made for the erection of large locomotive works in Anniston, and should 
they go into operation that place will have the distinction of being the only city 
in the South, if not in the country, where a complete train, from the locomotive 
to the cars, can be turned out of its shops, using only the raw material produced 
within its limits. Its furnaces make a high grade of car-wheel iron which is 
turned into wheels at the largo car wheel works there. The axles are made at 
the same place. The cars, complete, are produced at the car shops there, and now 
it is proposed to build locomotives. 

Of Birmingham and its remarkable growth it is scarcely necessary to say 
much, as this town has been moie widely advertised through the; letters of promi- 
nent men who have visited it than any other pl;ice in the South. For several 
years it was looked upon as the center of all the devel pments in the iron interests 
of the South, and on this account it las nltrneted word wide attention, icsulting 
IQ a growth in population and wealth that is indeed marvellous. la addition to 



^ INTR OD UCTION. 35 

the many furnaces in operation in and around the town, a large number are now 
under construction. At Chattanooga the progress in iron industries has likewise 
been wonderful, and this city has the credit of being the first point in the central 
South where Bessemer steel was made. South Pittsburgh, Sheffield and other 
towns that are rapidly springing up are building furnaces and other iron works 
with a rapidity that is startling. ^ . 

The procrress that the South has already made in the manufacture of pig iron 
is strikino-ly "shown in a recent article in the Manuflicturers' Record, in which it 
was stated that in 1880 the South made 397,301 tons of pig iron ; in 1885 it made 
712 835 tons-a gain of 315,534. Three States-Virginia, Alabama and Tennessee- 
that in 1880 produced 178,006 tons of pig iron, in 1885 produced 552,419 tons-an 
increase of 374,413 tons, or 139,958 tons more than the net increase in the United 
States, the production in the whole country outside of these three States being- 
234 455 tons less in 1885 than in 1880. In 1886 the production in the South was 
still laro-er, and in 1888, when many of the furnaces now under construction have 
been completed, the Soutli's output of pig iron will, it is estimated, be over 1,500,- 
000 tons Taking the three Southern States that are now the largest iron pro- 
ducers in that section, the production for each year from 1880 to 1885, both inclu- 
sive, was as follows : 

i88o. i88i. 1882. 1883. 1884, 1885. 

Virginia 29.934 Ss,?" 87,731 152,907 157,483 163,782 

Xlbama .... 77,190 98,081 112,765 172,465 189,664 227,438 

TenneTseeV.V. .":.... ]o^3 87^6 i_37^2 ^^^ X34^7 ^61,199 

Total 177,997 269,198 338,098 459.335 487,744 553,4i9 

With the increase in the production of Southern iron the shipments North 
have steadily enlarged, notwithstanding the rapid growth of diversified industries 
that use pig iron as a raw material. Bradstreet's, which has made a study of this 
matter for several years, shows the shipments to have been as follows : 

, 1883 > 1884 , -1885— -^ r— -1886— -% 

C^^.- Fry r in 1- 



3 M 






1^;^ I55I ^^^ ^^. '^ 

Maryland 4 7.577 4 3,77^ i 250 i 1,186 

Virginia 9 32,027 " 72,374 9 71.1^0 8 81,8^1 

Georgia 2 i,375 2 5,540 i 508 o 

Afabfma 3 2,665 8 10,250 7 22,814 6 25,000 

Tennessee 4 7f 7 4,33^ 3 4,ooo 7 22,175 

Kentucky i 4,364 2 3.800 2 336 i 4,ooo 

West Virginia 2 10,101 jt^ 2,500 ^ •••• _^ 5.5oo 

Totals 25 58,809 36 102,566 23 99,058 25 139.712 

Thesignificanceof the gain of 40,000 tons in 1886 over 1885 is found in the 
fact that it has taken place in the face of the extraordinarily increased demand for 
pig iron from recently established foundries and mills in tbe South, as well as from 
those located north of the Ohio and west of the Mississippi rivers. Illustrative of 
the growth in the demand for pig iron from local Southern establishments, it is 
noted that eight Southern furnaces, which shipped 42,000 tons of iron north of the 
Ohio river in 1885, have but 37,500 tons in 1886. Of these, Virginia furnaces sent 
one-third, Kentucky one- third and Tennessee one-quarter of the quantity men- 
tioned. Of Eastern pig iron shipments from the South, those from Virginia in- 
creased from 71,000 to nearly 82,000 tons, or 15^ per cent. The most conspicuous 
gain, however, was from Tennessee. In 1884 seven furnaces shipped East some 
4,330 tons, w^hile in 1886 the total increased (all from Nashville and Chattanooga) 
to 22,175 tons, over 500 per cent. Kentucky is not sending East as much pig iron 
jiow as in 1883, and West Virginia only one-half as much. 



26 INTRODUCTION. » 

Oneof the most gratifying features of the wonderful growth of tho iron in- 
dustries of the South is the wide diversity of new enterprises that are coming into 
existence for the production of finished iron goods. Machine shops, foundries, 
rolling mills, stove works, agricultural implement factories and other industries 
are being established all through the South; thus a home market for Southern pig 
iron is rapidly being developed that will require a very large part of the entire 
production, even when the new furnaces now under way get into opeiatic n. 
While the Southern people thrmselves are displaying the greatest energy in build- 
ing up these new industries, the manufacturers of tiie North, now fully aFive to 
the advantages of the South, are rapidly trausferriug their capital and en- 
ergy to this new field. This drift towards the South is well illustrated in the case 
of Messrs. Perry & Co., the extensive stove makers of Albany, New York. Seeing 
that it would be impossible to retain their Southern trade much longer at their old 
works, they have commenced the erection of a stove foundry in South Pittsburgh, 
where they will give employment to 500 or more hands. In making an announce- 
ment of this change they stated that they had occasionally been buying iron from 
the South and shipping it back in the shape of stoves, which involved an expense 
of $20 per ton on stoves that could be saved by building works in the South. It is 
this enormous saving in the cost of production that is so rapidly transferring 
Northern capital to the South. 

The manufacture of steel has been commenced in the South under very favor- 
able auspices, and the outlook for this industry is very bright. It was claimed for 
a long time that the South had no ores suitable for making Bessemi r steel, but an 
experimental plant erected at Chattanooga proved the falsity of this. This plant 
is now in successf.il operation in connection with a nail mill. In 1886 the Roans 
Iron Company, of Chattanooga, whose works had been shut down for some time, 
decided to equip their establishment with the best machinery for making Bessemer 
steel rails. This plant lias be( n nearly completed, and will probably be in opera- 
tion early in March. At Richmond a Bessemer steel plant is under construction , and 
arrangements are being perfected for building at le:ist one, and possibly more, at 
Ashland, Ky. The Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Company will build a steel 
plant, as has already been stated, at Eusley ; the De Bardeleben Coal & Iron Com- 
pany promise one at Bessemer; the Sloss Iron & Steel Company write that they 
will erect a steel plant, and last year, when the Woodstock Iron Company chang- 
ed its name to the Woodstock Iron & Steel Company, it was understo d that steel 
works would be built at Anniston, and it is probable that this will now be done. 

The immense deposits of Bessemer oie at Cranberry, North Carolina, really it 
may be said the immense mountain of solid ore, furnishes an inexhaustible supply 
of fine Bessemer ore. It is only within the last year or two that this ore has been 
mined on a large scale, but with the building of a railroad to connect these mines 
with the East Tennessee, Virginia & Georgia road at Johnston City, Tennessee, it 
became possible to shii) Cranberry ore. Since then mining has been pushed very 
vigorously. A new road is now in course of construction, and when finished it 
will open this mountain of ore to even more direct connection with the outside 
world, and will no doubt result in more extensive developments of the iron in- 
terests of that whole section, including parts of Tennessee, Western North Caro- 
lina, Southwest Virginia and Kentucky. In Southwest Virginia, tributary to the 
Norfolk & Western Railroad, there are also large deposits of Bessemer ores, and 
Northern capitalists are preparing to locate a town on tho Cripi>le Creek branch of 
this road, and to build very extensive iron and steel works. The abundance and 
cheapness of fine ores, good coking coals and limes'one, assure a rapid growth of 
the iron interests of that section, now that this country has been penetrated by a. 
railroad. 



INTR OB XJGTION. 27 

The question of the cost of making pig iron in the South has been mucli dis- 
cussed, but in a work of this kind it is hardly advisable to enter into any a- gument 
as to how cheaply it can be produced. It may, however, be well to give some 
statements put forth by others. Mr. R. P. Rothwell, C. E., M. E., of Xcw York, 
editor of the Eugiaeering and Mining Journal, a high authority in metallurgical 
matters, recently made a personal investigation of the iron districts of Alabama 
and Tennessee. From a statement made by him, the following, as to the cost of 
making iron in parts of Ahibama, is taken : 

"loo of iron, at 2 cents a unit ^2 00 

Fuel, I \^ tons 3.50 

Limestone , 30 

Labor 1,^0 

$7-30 
Renewals and incidentals i.oo 

Total cost, exclusive of interest on capital or profit on mining $3.30 

"Though these figures are not to l^e applied to any particular works, yet they 
are 'absolute figures of cost,* and nothing is 'assumed,' except the two items of 
renewals and incidentals. 

Each of the priucipalitems given above is 'bettered' at one or the other of 
the works. * * * Enough has bten done to show what can be done con- 
tinuously, and to justify the statement that pig iron can be made at certain ])oints 
in the Birmingliam dis-trict at a figure not exceeding $8 a ton, every expense in- 
cluded, even to that indefin te and mysterious item that makes its appearance when 
stock is taken at the end of the year. 

The cost of making Bes=;emer pig in the Birmingham district is dependent 
solely on the distance from which Bessemer ores have to be brought. If Carters- 
ville, with 150 miles haul, can supply the ore of desired quality, and yielding even 
55 per cent, of irim, the increased cost of transportation over native ores would 
not exceed $1.75 per ton of pig iron, and the greater cost of mining, if any, would 
be more than balanced by the lower fuel and labor items; so that, if we can assume 
that good Bessemer ores can be procured in quantity and in convenient location 
within 150 or even within SrOmiles of Birmingham, it is possible to make Bessemer 
pig there at $10.50 a ton, and possibly even at $10. 

These figures not only assure the prosperity of the iron-making industry in 
Alabama, giving it beyond question the iSouthern markets, but they are sufliciently 
far below the cost at a large number of Northern furnaces to enable Alabama to 
make the prices, if need be, in some of our large Northern markets." 

Coming as these statements do from such an unquestioned authority, they 
prove that the wonderful advantages of the South for making cheap pig iron have 
not been exaggerated, but rather that they have been underestimated. Very few, 
ev.en of the strongest advocates of Alabama's iron interests, have claimed that 
pig iron could be made in that Stite at $8 a ton, and yet the proof that this can 
be done comes from a Northern source. 

A writer in the Manufacturers' Record of November 27, discussing the same 
subject, makes the following quotation from a private letter as to the cost of iron 
making in East Tennessee : 

"Much has been written and said of late as to the probabilities of the South 
taking the lead in the production of good and cheap iron. Let us look at the 
facts for facts do not lie. 

In East Tennessee we can put 60 per cent, ore, almost practically free from 
phosphorus, on cars at 50 cents per ton, or less in some localities. The percent- 
age of phosp]:oru3 in a majority of the ores of East Tennessee does not average 
3-110 tenths of 1 per cent., and this will be understood by those in the trade. 

We can contract for coke as good, if not superior, to the Connellsville, Penn- 
sylvania, coke at $3 per ton. On the East Tennessee, Virginia & Georgia Railroad 
limestone is everywhere to be obtained, wiiich is excellent flux, at 25 cents per 
ton. Here we have the whole mtitter in a nut shell, for the production of pig iron 
is not a matter of speculation, but one of calculation only. Let me give you simple 
facts in my estimate of production, and if any one can pick holes in such state- 
ments I shall be glad to leani : 



:28 INTRODUCTION. 

COST OF PRODUCTION OF PIG IRON IN EAST TENNESSEE. 

Iron ore, say 2 tons, at 50 cents ^i .00 

Coke, T-Yi tons, at $3 4-i6 

Limestone, 10%, say 25 

Labor, management and ofiice expenses 2.59 

$8.00 

It may he remarked that my estimate for coke is helow the avera£;e in the 
South. I admit this, but in reply I can only state that I had the mana element of 
large works in Cleveland, Yorkshire, in England, where we always considered we 
were doing badly if our coke exceeded 27 cvvt., and this with 40 per cent. ore. I 
will, for illustration's sake, copy fjom ihe report of a well-known firm at Middles- 
boro, Yorkshire, the following : *Our ore has cost us, by the foregoing statement, 
4s. 3|d. per ton, and coke 12s. 4d.' 

Now, if we take these facts into consideration, and always remember that in 
Cleveland, England, they are dealing with a 40 per cent, ore, whilst we are dealing 
with a GO per cent, ore, it will strike the practical mind that Tennessee possesses 
great advantages, for which time alone is required to put before the iron masters 
not only of the North, but of England. I am intimately conversant with every 
detail of the manufacture of iron in this State, in Cleveland, England, Yorkshire, 
in Wales, G. B., and in the Northern States, and managed the largest works in 
Canada, and I say, without fear of contradiction, that my figures are a true and 
correct representation of the state of atfairs." 

In Southwest Virginia, on the Cripple Creek Branch of the Norfolk & West- 
ern Railroad, where extensive iron industries are to be established by Philadelphia 
capitalists, the writer is assured on the best authority, that is, the actual results of 
a furnace in operation there, that high grade ore, much of which is suitable for 
Bessemer iron without any admixture, while the run of the mines only requires a 
very small percentage of Cranberry ore to produce Bessemer iron, can be put in 
the furnace at considerably less than $1 a ton. Pocahontas coke can be delivered 
at $2.50 per ton, and possibly less, while limestone is abundant and needs to be 
carted only a few hundred yards. 

In an interview published in the New York Tribune during the latter part 
of December, 1886, Gen. Willard Warner, of Nashville, made the following state- 
ments regarding pig iron manufacture in the South : 

"The pioneer in the manufacture of coke-iron in the South was Gen. J. W. 
Wilder, of Chattanooga, formerly of Indiana, who built the first coke furnace at 
Rockwood, Tennessee, in 1867, and the second in 1872 for the Roane Iron Com- 
pany. These furnaces have been successfully and profitably run ever since, the 
Roane Iron Company paying regular six per cent, dividends on a capital of 
$1,000,000. The most important single ftictor in the iron trade of this section is 
the Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Company, which lately absorbed the Pratt 
Coal & Iron Company, of Birmingham, Alabama. The capital of this company 
is $ 10,00. >,000, and it now has in operation five large furnaces— two at Birming- 
ham, Alabama, two at South Pittsburgh, and one at Cowan, Tennessee, and is 
"building four laige new furnaces at Ensley City, near Birmingham, and one at 
South Pittsburgh. It owns 300,000 acres of ore and coal lands in Alabama and 
Tennessee, including the famous Pratt and Suwanee seams. This company in 
1888 will make 1 ,200 tons of pig iron a day. Enoch Ensley is president ; T. T. Hill- 
man, vice-president, and Mr. Shook here is the general manager. 

Tlie Alabama «& Tennessee Coal & Iron Company, of wliich A. S. Colyar, of 
Nashville, is president and I am vice-president, owns 70,000 acres of valuable coal 
and iron lands in Alabama, and has "contracted for three coke furnaces at Sheffield, 
withadaily capacity for each of 125 tons. Messrs. Ensley, Parish, Shook and 
their associates are also building one lar^e furnace at Sheffield, and the Sheffield 
Company the fifth. Tlie South Pittsburgh Coal & Iron Company is also preparing 
to build two large coke fui'naces at South Pittsburgh, with a daily capacity of 120 
tons ( ach. 

Till) first furnace was built at Birmingham by T. T. Ilillman in 1879-80. I 
•saw the site of Birmingiiam in 1870 as a cotton field, and could have bought the 
land f )!• $10 an acre. Now the ciiy Ins a population of 35,000 and lots are selling 
for $1,000 a front foot. Col. J. "W. Sloss built two large furnaces at Birmingham 
in 1881-82; Messrs. D(; Banleleben and Underwood built the Mary Pratt furnace 
in 1882, and tiie Messrs. Underwood the Wheeling furnace, near Birmingham, in 



INTRODUCTION. *» 

1881-82. The Eureka Company, of which J, D. Farris, of Cincinnati, is presidents 
built the two furnaces at Oxmoor, six miles from Birmingham, in 187G-77. 

Citico furuace, Chattanooi]^a. was built by the Citico Furnace Company, H. S. 
Chamberlain, president, in 18f4. This furnace and the two Rockwood furuaces 
are now makiug Bessemer pig iron from the Cranberry ore on tlie line of the East 
Tennessee Virginia & Georgia Railroad. This iron will be used by the Roane 
Iron Company, at its mill in Chattanooga, for making Bessemer steel rails, begin- 
nino- in February. This will be the inception of the manufacture of steel rails m 
the South. Capt. H. S. Chamberlain is also president of this company. 

There are now building in this region eighteen new furnaces ot large size and 
best modern type, as follows: Nine at or near Birmingham, five at Sheffield, three 
at South Pittsburgh, and one at Chattanooga. In 1888 there will be forty-one coke 
and seventeen charcoal furnaces in the region, not counting some small charcoal 
furnaces, which may be i-egarded a'^ abandoned, with a total assured production, 
as I have already told you,'of 1,500,000 gross tons." 

In this statement Gen. Warner omits the two large furnaces definitely decided 
upon for Anniston, and several others, for the construction of which companies 
have been organized, in addition to a large number of furnaces projected at other 
places, such as Decatur, Selma, Montgomery, &c. 

It is as certain that the South is to be the manufacturing center of this country 
in iron as it is that she is to be in cotton. The rapid increase in the production 
of pio- iron is being followed by a diversification of iron manufactures, and the 
South has already commenced on a large scale to manufacture its own car wheels, 
stoves, agricultural implements, engines, sugar machinery, iron ships, locomotives, 
etc., etc. The first effect of this will be to supply the South with articles the 
South needs. Then the manufacturers will invade the West; and the East will 
lose that market. So many rivers pierce the South, giving such cheap highways 
to the West, forever erecting a barrier against exliorbit:mt railroad i a:cs ; s many 
hard woods so superb, abundant and cheap, are found, to combine with iron in 
implements; labor is so cheap and free from strikes; mineral lands are so cheap; 
so that iron manufacturers can at once own coal, iron and iron ore, forbidding 
combinations against manufacturers— these and more surely foretell the great 
future for iron manufacture in the South. 

In view of the great progress that the iron interests of the South are now 
making, it is of interest to quote the prediction of Hon. Abram S. Hewitt, of New 
York, one of the largest iron manufacturers of the North. Referri o Alabama, 
he said : 

"I think this will be a region of coke-made iron on a scale grander than has 
ever been witnessed on the habitable globe." 

Who will now question this in the light of recent events? 

While the iron interests, as I have already said, and their kindred industries 
have attracted the greatest share of attention, it must not be understood that other 
lines of industrial growth are not makiug good progress. 

In the building of lumber mills of all kinds, from the small portable sow mill 
to the mill costing $50,000 to $100,000, the erection of ice factories, flour mil Is, &c., 
there is great activity. In fact, while the iron interests have attracted the 
greatest attention, the growth of manufactures covers a wide range of indus- 
tries, including foundries, machine shops, steel works, cotton and woolen mills, 
cotton-seed oi.! mills, cotton compresses, fruit canning factories, carriage and wagon 
factories, agricultural implement factories, flour mills, grist mills, saw mills, plan- 
ing mills, sash, door and blind factories, shuttle factories, handle and spoke fac- 
tories, barrel factories, shingle mills, furniture factories, tobacco factories, brick 
yards, ice factories, fertilizer factories, stove foundries, wire fence factories, lime 
works, soap factories, tanneries, glass works, gas works, whiting factories, distil- 
leries, potteries, electric light works, marble and slate quarrying companies, and 
companies to mine coal, iron ore, gold, silver, mica, natural gas, oil, &c. It is a 



so IN TROD UCTION. 

healthy growth. Instead of all iuterest being centered in the establishment of a 
few big enterprises, the South has realized the importance of the small factory- and 
workshop, and so we see springing up everywhere small factories, requiring 
but a few hands and a little capital, for producing the many articles of manufacture 
needed everywhere. Finding at first a local market for their goods, these flictories 
will gradually extend their facilities and widen the scope of their trade, until they 
develop by a natural process into exten-ive enterprises. 

Included in the list of new enterprises reported by the Manufacturers' Record 
in the South during 1886 were: 28 iron furnaces, 50 ice factories, 68 foundries and 
machine shops, many of them of large size, 1 Bessemer steel rail mill, 26 miscella- 
neous iron works, including iron pipe works, bridge and bolt works, &c. ; 8 stove 
foundries, 24 gas works, 34 electric light companies, 11 agricultural implement 
factories, 174 mining and quarrjnug enterprises, 16 carriage and wagon factories, 
9 cotton mills, 23 furniture factories, 42 water works, 58 tobacco factories, 92 flour 
mills, 448 lumber mills, (not counting small portable saw mills), including saw and 
planing mills, sash and door factories, stave, handle, shingle, hub and spoke, shut- 
tle block factories, &c., in addition to which there was a large number of miscella- 
neous enterprises. 

COAL. 

The magnitude of the coal resources of the South is utterly beyond computa- 
tion. The entire coal area of Great Britain covers only 11,900 square miles, while 
• West Virginia alone has 16,000 square miles of coal fields, Alabama 10,680 square 
miles, Kentucky nearly 13 000, Tennessee 5,100, Arkansas over 9,000, and Texas 
estimated at over 30,000 square miles. Moreover, the coal is easily and cheaply 
mined, and is of the best quality. Some idea of how absolutely inexhaustible are 
the coal beds of the South ma^" be gained from a few statistics regarding the AVar- 
rior coal fields, of Alabama, which is simply one of the coal fields of one State. 
Regarding the Warrior field, Prof. Henry McCalley, in his late geological report, 
says that it "contains about 7,800 square miles, and is about two-thirds as large as 
the entire coal territor}'' of Great Britain. Its coal measures are over three thous- 
and feet thick, containing fifty-three seams of coal, being from a few inches to 
fourteen feet thick, having a combined thickness of over 125 feet of pure coal. It 
is estimated tliat they contain not less than 113,119,000,000 tons, of which about 
108,394,000,000 tons would be available The coal is valued now at about $150,- 
000,000,000 at the mines of which $30,000,000,000 would be profit, being about 200 
times the present total assessed value of the property in Alabama, and would buy 
eveiy foot of Alabama territory at $900 iier acre These coals, like those of other 
fields in Alabama, are especially enhanced in value, owing to the proximity of 
vast deposits of red and brown iron ores and limistones." 

In Maryland, Virgmia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama and 
Georgia, the coal-mining interests are of great extent and value, but are very in- 
significant as compared with what they will be in a few years. In several of these 
States extensive coal-mining operations are of comparatively recent origin, but it 
is in them that the most rai^id progress is being made in the opening of new mines, 
and the enlargement of the output of those already at work. Maryland, Alabama 
and West Virginia are at present the leading coal-producing States in the South, 
the output in the first two being about 2,500,000 tons, and in the last about 3,500,- 
000 tons annually, with the certainty of a large increase in West Virginia and Ala- 
bama durmg the next few years, as many new coal mines are being opened and 
worked on a very large scale Tlie coa' mined in Maryland and West Virginia is 
largely shipped North, reaching tidewater at Baltimore by the Baltimore & Ohio 
Railroad, at Washington and Georgetown by the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal, and 
at Newport News by the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad. Newport News is the 



INTRODUCTION. 31 

tidewater terminus of this road, and, during the last few years, since tlie road was 
•extended to that point, tlie coal shipments North, as well as tlie supplying,' of coal 
to ocean steamers, have rapidly increased. Virginia has not figured very promi- 
nently as a coal producer until within the last year or two— the yield in that Slate 
in 1880 being less than 46,000 tons. Very extensive mining operations are, how- 
ever, nowbdng carried on, mainly through the instrumentality of the Norfolk & 
Western Railroad, which has lately built at Norfolk, Virginia, one of the largest 
coal-shipping piers in the world, with a view to making that city a great coaling 
port. Tlie coal-mining interests of the southwestern part of that Stale have been 
developed very rapidly during the last two years, and in 1886 the output of the 
mines in that section was nearly 900,000 tons. This coal is admirably adapted for 
coke making, and a large number of ovens are now under construction there. 
Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia and West Virginia have all attracted 
great attention to their vast wealth of coal since 1880, and the increase of coal 
mining in these five States has been nothing less than wonderful. Twelve years ago 
the total coal product of Alabama was 10,000 tons, while in 1885 2,225,000 tons were 
produced. The increase in the South's coal production is very clearly brought 
out by comparing the amount mined in 1870 and 1880, as reported by the United 
States Census, with the output of 1882 and 1885, as given by Frederick E. Saward 
in his annual report entitled "The Coal Trade " The figures are: 

STATES 1S7O, TONS. 1880, TONS. 1882, TONS. I085, TONS. 

Maryland..' 2,345,i53 2,228,917 1,294,316 "'^^"'^^ 

Virginia 61,803 45,896 100,000 630,000 

West Virginia 608,878 1,839,845 2,000,000 3,483,457 

Georgia.. ^54,644 i75,ooo 200,000 

Alabama ",000 3-3,972 800,000 2,225,000 

Tennessee I33,4i8 495,i3i 850,000 i.44o-597 

Kentucky.... 32,038 ^46,288 1,300,00. 1,700,000 

Arkansas M,778 50,000 175,^ 

Texas '•" 

Total 3,193,190 6,049,471 6,569,316 12,511,539 

The rapid increase in 1 he coal product of the South, as shown by these figures, 
-will enable the reader to gain some idea of the progress of this industry ; but the 
figures for 1885 will be much too small for 1887, as preparations have been made 
l)y new companies organized during 1886 for very extensive mining op'-rations, 
which will probably make the yield of 1887 surprisingly large. 

The growth of the coal and iron interests of the South has naturally caused a 
large increase in coke making, and in this line of industry the progress has been 
very great. A comparison of the production of coke in the South in 18S0 and 
1885 gives the following : 

STATES. l88o, TONS. 1 885, TONS. 

Alabama 42,035 ^oi.iSo 

Georgia 70,000 70,669 

Tennessee 91,675 218,842 

West Virginia 95, 720 260,571 

Virginia 49,i39 

H Kentucky ^'7° 4 

Total 299,430 903,105 

During 1886 the increase over 1885 was very large, but the statistics of pro- 
duction are not yet available. In all the coking sections of the South new ovens 
are being constructed as rapidly as possible to meet the increasing demand for coke. 

It is almost useless to attempt to make any predictions as to the future growth 
of coul mining in the South, so rapid is the progress now being nuidc ; but it may 
be accepted without any hesitancy, that the next ten years will witness a far 
greater development of this industry than the last five, for the South is really but 
on the threshold of its industrial era, and yet, in the last five years, the Soutli's 
coal product has about doubled. Mr. Porter estimates that in ten years Alabama 
mines alone will produce 10,000,000 tons, nearly as much as the yield of the entire 
South in 1885. 



83 INTRODUCTION. 



COTTON. 



That the South is debtined to be the center of the cotton manufacturing in- 
terests of this country admits of no questioning. Its natural advantages for this 
business are far superior to those to be found in any other section. The tempo- 
rary depression in this industry is rapidly passing away with the return of pros- 
perity to the country. During the great activity that preceded the late depression 
many cotton mills were erected in the South, some of them costing entirely too 
much in proportion to the number of their spindles, and some without sufficient 
commercial capital to have carried them through successfully even if business 
had continue 1 prosperous. It was only natural that such mills should be seriously 
affected by the decline in values and the stagnation in trade that commenced just 
as they were about ready to begin operations. Taken as a whole, however, and 
considering the disadvantages of many mills, owing to the high cost of building,, 
lack of sufficient capital and inexperienced management, the cotton manufactur- 
ing interests of the South stood the strain of the long depression remarkably weU. 
They have, in fact, really emphasized the South's advantages for this industry. 

Mr. Edward Atkinson, of Boston, in his report for the census upon the cotton 
manufacturing interests of the country, after showing the much greater advanta- 
ges that New England possessed for this industry as compared with tlie most 
favored district-; of England, wrote: 

"It may be said that this proves too much, and that the; cotton spinners of 
the Southern States will have the same relative advantage over New England. 
Let this be freely admitted. We are treating the question of the future supremacy 
of the United States in the manufacture as well as the growth of cotton, and if the 
future changes in population, wealth and condition of the different sections of this 
country shall cause the increase of spindles, especially in the coarse fabrics, to be 
planted in the healthy hill country of Northern Georgia, Eastern Tennessee and 
the Caroliuas, it will simply be the greater evidence that natural laws are para- 
mount. If Georgia has twice the advantages over Lancashire that New England 
now possesses, it will only be the fault of the people of Georgia if they do not reap 
the benefit of it." 

The force of Mr. Atkinson's logic will assuredly be seen in the not very dis- 
tant future. Not Georgia, the Carolinas and Tennessee only will be the seat of 
important cotton manufactures; the other Southern States will also share in this 
growth. As yet Texas has done almost nothing in this direction; but what a 
magnificent field for cotton manufacturing ! Producing about 1,500,000 bales of 
cotton, and already having within her own borders 2,50*^,000 people, she exports 
her raw cotton and imports her dry goods. Besides supplying her own population 
that is so rapidly being added to, there is an immense field in the countries south 
of her for which she ought to manufacture large quantities of cotton goods. Too 
much, however, must not be expected immediately of the South in manufactures. 
Comparatively speaking, they are new, and it takes time to build up great indus- 
tries with wide ramifications. 

To show what has been done in the development of the cotton manufacturing 
interests of the South, the following comparisons, showing the number of mills, 
spindles and looms when the census was taken in 1880, and the number at the 
present time is given : 

NUMBER OF COTTON MILLS IN THE SOUTH. 

States. I 886. i88o. Increase. 

Alabama 31 16 15 

Arkansas 3 2 i 

Florida 211 

Cieorgia 66 40 26 

Kentucky 9 3 6 

Louisiana 9 2 7 

Maryland 26 19 7 

Mississippi 14 8 6, 

North Carolina 97 49 48 

South Carolina 34 14 20 

Tennessee 43 16 27 

Texas 5 2 3 

Virginia 14 8 6 

Tota.1 353 180 173 



INTR OD UCTION. 33 



In the number of mills there has been an increase of nearly 100 per cent. The 
largest total increase, though not the largest percentage of increase, was in North 
Carolina. In that State the general disposition has been to build small mills and 
many of them, while in South Carolina and Georgia popular favor has been for 
large mills. 

NUMBER OF SPINDLES AND LOOMS. 

, 1886 

No. of 
Spindles. 

Alabama 102,866 

Arkansas 3^9°° 

Florida 1,928 

( ieorgia S^S.^iS* 

Kentucky 29,704 

Louisiana 45,644 

Maryland 169,950 

M- sissippi 40,728 

North Carolina 257,576 

South Caroli la 224,731 

Tennessee 117, 444 

Texas 7,988, 

Virginia 72,624, 

Total 1,460,697 27,004 713,989 15,222 

These figures show an increase of over 100 per cent, in the number of spin- 
dles, and an increase but slightly less in the number of looms. The States that 
show up most prominently in this increase are Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, 
Louisiana, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee and Virginia. 
The increase in each State has been as follows : 

Spindles. Looms. 

Alabama ' 47,794 6io 

Arkans.s 1,885 2 

Florida i^"2 

Georsjia 184,639 3,935 

Kentucky ^ 20,682 598 

Louisiana 39,547 016 

Maryland 44,930 757 

Mississippi 14,556 124 

North Caroina 154.809 1,158 

South Carolina 13^,944 2,803 

Tennessee 71,176 460 

Texas 5,34o 





, 1 


38o. — ^ 


No. of 


No. of 


No. of 


Looms. 


Spindles. 


Looms. 


1,670 


55,072 


1,060 


30 


2,015 
816 


28 


8,648 


200,974 


4,713 


671 


9,022 


73 


936 


6,097 


120 


3,082 


125,0x4* 


2,325 


828 


26,172 


704 


3,118 


102,767 


1,960 


4,579 


02,788' 


1,776 


1,528 


46,268. 


1,068 


152 


2,648 


71 


1,762 


44,336'. 


1,324 



81 



\ 



Virginia 28,288 438 

Total 746,708 11,782 

In the number of ppindles and looms, Georgia has made the largest increase— 
184,689 of the former and 3,935 of the latter— while North Carolina is second in 
the increase of spindles, but is exceeded in the number of looms by South Caro- 
lina. Tliese three States taken together show a very large gain : 

Spindles. Looms. 

Georgia 184,639 3 935 

North Carolina 154,809 1 ,158 

South Carolina i3i.944 2,803 

Total gain in three States 471,392 7,896 

It may very truthfully be said tliat notwithstanding the increase in cotton 
mills in the South, that section has but a small percentage ot^ the total number of 
spindles in tlie country. While this is true, yet everything must have a beginning. 
It is not so much to the aggregate number of spindles as to the percentage of 
increase in the different sections that we must look to rightly appreciate the posi- 
tion of this industry. In 1880 there were 10,G53,43.j spindles in the United States, 
of which the South had only 713,989, or G.7 per cent.; while there are now 
13,530,745 spindles, of which the South has 1,460,697, or 10.7 per cent. From 1880 
to 1886 the increase in the number of spiadles in the South was 104.5 per cent., 
while the increase in the balance of the country wns only 21.3 per cent. It is this 
difference in the rate of increase more than the aggregate gain in the number of 
spindle.s that shows the progress of the South. 



84 INTRODUCTION. 

It seems quite obvious that in the future greater attention will be given to the 
manufacture of finer goods in all mills hereafter erected in the South. The hire for 
money will be less and less in the South, and is now from two to four per cent, 
less than it was only a few years ago. It is a reasonable infjrence that some of 
the mnnufacturers of machinery for textile fabrics will move South. Here are 
cheaper iron and woods. Here is to be in the future the great field of demand for 
textile machinery for cotton, and after awhile, no doubt, for wool. When the 
South sli:;ll get her cheapt r lionic-made machinery f )r the puiposes in question, 
and her lower rate of interest for the use of mone5^ having her cheaper labor, her 
climate, etc., etc., it would seem that she ouL^ht almost to monopolize the cotton 
manufacturing of the world. 

COTTON SEED. 

Anollier phase of development in the Sout'i s"nce the war is tliat of manipu- 
lation of cotton Feed, mainly for its oil, but al.-o as a food for stock and a ferti- 
lizer. It is one of the most wonderful oversights of tb.e South that cotton seed 
should have remained so long undiscovered, so to speak. They used to be re- 
garded as a nuisance by planters, and were dumped i.ito the rivers and bayous to 
be got rid of It is only wi'.hin a very lew years that one could go on any planta- 
tion where there was a cotton gin, and not find large piles of the seed utterly 
unregarded. Now there is a demand for all that can be produced. This change 
has been brought about within three or four years for most of the South. Indeed, 
the precise merits of the seed as a food and fertilizer seem to have been unknown 
to science until very recently, according to Mr. John A. Myers, professor of chem- 
ist ry in Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College, who, in an address some 
time ago, said: "Although the cotton plant has been cultivated in this country 
for almost a century, it is only within the last four years that the investig:Uions of 
scientific men have been directed to it." According to his statement, "the first 
cotton-seed oil that entered the market came from Egypt to France in 1852. Since 
then there has been a gradual increase in the business; but there was no very 
great amount of it manufactured in this country until about ten or fifteen years 
ago. It has now become so general that there is a serious competition among the 
mills to secure as much seed as possible." 

The development of the cotton-seed oil industry between 1880 and 1885 was 
something remarkable. In 1880 the South had 40 cotton-seed mills, employing 
$3,504,500, while in 1885 the number had increased to 146, having a capital of 
$10,792,450. Tlie number of mills in the South, and the amount of capital invested 
in 1885, as compared witli 1880, was as follows: 

No. of No. of 

Mills. Capital. Mills. Capital. 

Alabama i8 $ 810,000 2 ^82,000 

Arkansas 12 1,501,250 4 275,000 

Florida 3 75,000 . . 

Georgia 16 915,000 .. 

Louisiana 16 1,840,000 12 i,557>5oo 

Mississippi , 21 1,217,000 8 450,000 

North Carolina 9 275,000 .. 

South Carolina 7 299,700 .. 

Tennessee 17 1,731,500 9 935,000 

Texas 27 2,128,000 4 202,000 

Virginia i 3,000 

Total 146 ^10,792,450 40 $3,504,500 

The preceding statistics show that in Florida, Georgia and North and South 
Carolina, this industry has been created since 1880, neither of these States having 
a single cotton-seed mill in that year. The great' st increase has been in Texas, 
wh( re 23 mills and $1 ,920,000 have been added. Arkansas is second in the increase 
in capital, but Alabama and Gcorg:a are ahead of that State in the increase in the 



INTRODUCTION. 35 

number of mills. The aggregate increase in the business has been 106 mills and 
$7,287,950. Prior to this large increase in the number of mills, the manufacture 
of cotton- seed oil yielded immense profits, well-managed mills, so it is stated, 
making as much as 50 per cent, profits a year, and often doing considerably better 
than tliat. These large profits naturally resulted in the building of many mills, 
and the production of oil increased more rapidly than the consumption, causing a 
decline in prices. 

At the present time all interest in this business is centered in the American 
Cotton Oil Trust, an organization ver}'" similar to the Standard Oil Company. 
The Trust has succeeded in obtaining control of a large majority of the oil mills 
of the South, and there is much speculation as to the future of its operations. 
Many of the leading papers of the South have taken very strong ground agains^ 
it, believing that it will work serious injury to the planters. Having the control 
of most of the mills, the Trust can dictate the prices of cotton seed throughout 
the greater part of the South. There has been some talk of the planters combin- 
iug against this organization, but it hardly seems probable that this will be done. 
For awhile it was supposed that the Trust would secure possession of every cotton- 
seed mill in the South, and thus being able to regulate the price of the seed as w^ell 
as of the oil, would be absolutely master of the situation. Lately, however, there 
has been some disposition on the part of one or two strong mills to fight this com- 
bination, and this has inspired others with rather more confidence. 

Cotton-seed oil has entered so largely into so many articles, that it will be 
likely to enter more. It will, probably, largely supplant lard some day (when 
better refined) at the South, and possibly in other parts of the world. People are 
beginning to understand that they have been largely using it, while supposing 
they were using olive oil — tii*^. former being exported from the United States to 
Italy, and brought back labeled olive oil. So they have learned its merits, and 
can have a chance to be patriotic, at less cost, by its use under its true name. As 
a help to its further use, the following is given from Prof. Mj'ers in the address 
above quoted: 

"There is a great deal of poorly refined oil in the market which has seriously 
interfered with the ease witli which it should find introduction. In refining, if 
the oil has not had the gummy and albuminous matter completely removed by the 
process, the oil has an extremel}^ disagreeable cotton-seed oil odor and taste. If 
it has not been well washed or very carefully separated, it may have a portion of 
the soapy matters in it which is very disagreeable. If the cook who experiments 
with the oil for the first time strikes such a bad specimen, he is not likely to try 
another sample very soon. AVhen properly refined, the oil may be applied to 
every use to which the non-drying oils are put. While the gluten and paraffine 
are present, it mry be used to adulterate drying oils. When these are removed, it 
makes an excellent lubricating oil. If the palmatine be removed, it can be mixed 
with a number of the oils; and when bleached, cannot readily be detected from 
olive oil. We can make an excellent quality of soap from it, several specimens of 
which lie upon the table before you. By changing the process a little, we could 
convert it into most excellent miner's oil; or, if you wish it as lard, we will pro- 
vide it for you. Do you desire it as butter':' You can have it. If you desire to 
obtain glycerine from it, we can make it for you; and if you wish it in the form 
of ointments and plasters, you can get it by calling upon your dj-uggist. Preju- 
dice prevents, and will ccmtinue to do so for a long time, the use of the article in 
the kitchen; but if you will sell it dashed with lard, tallow or butter, people will 
use it. Some manufacturers have had to cliristei it 'butter oil,' 'cookaline,' etc., 
in order to introduce it. 

"The great lard suit in Chicago this year develops the fact that much of the 
lard in the market contains at least twenty-five per cent, of cotton-seed oil. In 
this case, if I am not much mistaken, one of the witnesses testified that he had 
seen one hundred and twent}' barrels of cotton-seed oil and forty hogsheads of 
tallow made into first-class lard in one day. Think of it, gentlemen ! What a 
demand there must be for cotton-seed oil in Chicago, Indianapolis and Cincinnati! 
Probably the greatest application that the oil finds in the arts is in manufjicturing 
soap. It is now a well-known fact that a very large portion of our finest toilet 



36 INTR OD UGTION. 

soaps are made wholly or partly from cotton-seed oil. It is best for this purpose 
when mixed with other oils or fats. It is the cheapest of the oils that can be had 
for this purpose." 

Although the use of cotton seed, either whole or ground, as food for stock 
may be rather said to be a discovery than a development, it has all the effects of 
the latter, since its use dispenses with much food once purchased West, and it 
will enable our farmers to throw into the market so much more of their produc- 
tion, (of what will make food for stock,) instead of consuming it, as before. Here 
is some striking language from the same source just quoted : 

" There is not an animal produced upon a Southern plantation that cannot be 
fed and fattened upon the productions of that plantation, if they be properly 
prepared. It is simpl}^ the nonsense of fashion which leads the Southern farmer 
to send to the Northwest for his feed. The Mississippi farmer lias at his door 
550,000 tons of the very best feedstuff in the world, worth, at the rates at which 
we calculate the food values of different materials, $22,880,000. If we compare 
this with the oat crop of Illinois, which produces more than any other State, we 
find that crop worth only $25,558,000. "We pay high prices for grain brought 
from the North, while we ship away or allow to waste a better feedstuff, obtaining 
for it less than half of its value. 

" The farmer of the North can well afford to ship grain here and buy back 
cotton-seed meal. The values stand as follows: If corn is worth per 100 pounds 
$1.11 as a feedstuff, cotton seed is worth $2.08, cotton-seed meal $2.30, oats 98 
cents, cow peas $1.33, good hay 75 cents. These valuations are given in ' Stewart's 
Feeding Animals,' which has lately been published, and are based upon the most 
carefully made analyses. 

" The feed value of the cotton-seed meal and cake is not ai)preciated by the 
Southern farmers as it is by those elsewhere. Where competition is the greatest 
and the farmers the most mtelligent, or where there is necessit}- for economic 
feeding, we find cotton seed is most highly prized. There we have no complaints 
about it killing stock. It is only where the farmers are so careless as to allow 
their stock to eat too much of it without other food that it will kill the stock. 
Corn, wheat and oats, under the same considerations, would do the same, prob- 
ably; though as they are not so rich, they are not so likely to do it as the rich 
cotton seed and its products are. We have no hesitation in saying that the 
cotton-seed meal or cake is one of the best feedstuff's that is produced in any 
climate. The meal is better than the seed, but at present prices the farmer cannot 
afford to sell his seed and buy meal." 

Putting the whole of the South at only six times as much, (for Mississippi 
now does not produce one-sixth of the cotton crop of the United States.) here is 
not less than one hundred and fort}'" million dollars as a feed value in the Southern 
cotton seed every year; and it may be said to cost nothing to make it, (given by 
nature's bounty,) because the cotton crop must be made anyhow, and would cost 
as much to do so without as with the seed. Let the Western farmer think how 
many bushels of corn and oats, how many bales of ha}^ this large sum will buy; 
or, rather let him reflect hoAv much of these raised )iy the Southern farmer can be 
sold by him in competition with him, (the Western farmer,) because he (the 
Southern farmer) has cotton seed as a substitute, largely. 

It is to be hoped that the South will learn more and more to use the cotton 
seed as a fertilizer. I know, from my own investigations, that this has grown in 
parts of the South to a wonderful degree. Mills that a few years ago sold all or 
nearl}'^ all their oil cake to Europe, now sell in the shape of cotton-seed meal for 
a fertilizer, instead of sending it to enrich the soil there. Professor 5lyers com- 
putes that cotton seed " simply as a fertilizer are worth (on the basis for calculating 
the value of commercial fertilizers) $16.86 per ton, or 28 cents per bushel." A 
good plan is to feed to stock, and get the fat as well as the fertilizer. 

I shall close this topic by a further quotation from Professor Myers' address, 
hoping that what has been said maj' commend this great product of the South to 
greater appreciation and use. He says : 



INTRODUCTION. 37 

"The mills do not receive more than the one-half of the value of their 
products. For example, the meal is worth $4(i a ton as a feedstuti' and $42,18 as 
a fertilizer, while they obtain only $20 for it. The oiily way to cause the price to 
rise is to have its value better understood, and especially by the Southern larmers, 
who will use more of it for feed and fertilizers, instead of sending North for both. 

"And now, in conclusion, there is no agricultural product known to your 
speaker that has a value equal to this in almost any place that you can put it. 
You may take its hulls and use them for cattle feed, tor fertilizers, for fuel, for car 
axles. The kernel you may use as a feedstuff, a fertilizer, or substance from which 
oil may be obtained. The oil is one of the best culinary articles, is of extensive 
use in pliarmacy, and of almost unlimited application to the arts. It makes little 
difference whether you buy it as butter, as lard, as lubricating oil or olive oil; 
wdiether you apply it as a salve, a pomade or a soap ; it is good, and good 
everywhere." 

It would be quite germane while on this fertilizer side of cotton seed to say 
something at large on the development of phosphate mining and fertilizer manu- 
facturing South, more particularly in South Carolina, and which is the outgrowth 
of the last few^ years. It is a most important topic, and one to which the South 
ought to give great, and will give increasing, attention. The w^ealth of the South 
in marls is incalculable, and some day they are destined to play a most important 
part in the agricultural supremacy of the South. Space forbids further elabora- 
tion, and I shall have to refer the reader to this topic in the article on. South 

Carolina. t^ a tt ryi^ t t^o 

RAILkOADS. 

Although the mineral resources of the South and her vast forests have 
attracted much consideration and large investment, in no regard has she so much 
enlisted the attention of the nation or of Europe as in building railroads. This 
is the most commanding theatre of capital, and strikes the eye of the w^orld not 
only for its colossal combinations of money, but the prestige of its participants. 
Some of the most sagacious and celebrated railroad men of this continent are 
largely interested in Southern railroads. Nor is the participation in the South's 
progress in this respect confined to the United States. The Erlanger sA'udicate, 
headed by Baron Erlanger, of Paris, and other rich foreign corporations, have 
invested during late years many millions of dollars in building new railroads and 
improving old ones throughout the whole South. These gentlemen and a number of 
others wdio represent capital in Europe and the United States have added untold 
and incomputable momentum to the progress of the South. While they may not 
have led the way in starting the South on her wonderful speed of development, 
they liave largely added to and confirmed — sealed, as it were — the confidence of 
the civilized w^orld in the eligibility of the South as a field for investn\ent and 
enterprise ; and the South owes an immense debt of gratitude to these monetaiy 
magnates who have stamped, with the golden seal of their capital, the indelible 
impress of their confidence. The logic of confidence in the South's progress is 
enunciated in the golden argument of capital, and is voiced in t];e fierce rhetoric 
of thunderous and clattering railroad trains. And these roads are bands of iron 
to bind our Union in the bonds of an indissoluble fraternity; and the cogency of 
common interest is added to the kindliest friendship. 

It were a vain task to attempt to keep pace with the Southci-n railroad 
projects. It seems as though almost every dav brings a revelation of some new 
railroad scheme. It is quite certain that railroads are projected, sui-vej-s being 
made, "ground" being "broke," under the auspices of such wealthy corporations 
as to confirm public confidence in the seriousness and good laith of their opera- 
tions and intentions. But to assume nothing as to the amount of capital to be 
invested in roads not actually built, the South can make an exhibit which is " both 
a pledge and prophecy" of her progress. The following table shows the railway 
mileage in the Southern States, 1887, compared with IbSO; 



38 INTRODUCTION. 

MILEAGE MILEAGE 

JAN. 1887. JUNE, 1880. 

Alabama 2,286 '^,7^° 

Arkansas 2,208 822 

Florida 1,939 529 

Georgia 3,274 2,433 

Kentucky 2,069 1,560 

Louisiana i>393 522 

Maryland 1,252 931 

Mississippi .2,069 1,119 

North Carolina 2,187 1,44° 

South Carolina 1,802 i,393 

Tennessee 2,184 1,816 

Texas 7,234 2,697 

Virginia 2,727 1,697 

West Virginia 1,143 692 

33,767 I9>43i 

Here is proof of development and of the confidence of the capitalists of the 
civilized world to the measure of over 14,000 miles of railroad in six and a-half 
years, and that, too, during a comparative dullness in railroad building North and 
West for much of the time. At a low average, the construction of these 14,300 
miles must have cost over SSSO,'^ 00,000, in addition to which many million;^ have 
been spent in the purchase and improvement of old roads. According to Poor's 
Railroad Manual, the actual cost of the railroads now in the South and their 
equipment is over $1,300,000,000, ngainst $679,804,000 in 1880. 

The South has also progressed considerably in cotton production. If the 
cotton-picker should prove a success, the production of cotton will be greatly 
increased, and a revolution in the locality of cotton raising will ensue. In the 
Mississippi bottom, it is a common thing to make more cotton than is picked. It 
has been said that there is land enough in Mississippi, in what is called the 
"bottom," to make cotton enough for the present needs of the world. If, there- 
fore, the cotton-picker will serve the purposes hoped for it, it would seem that 
the cheapest labor would gravitate there, and wreak itself on the most produc- 
tive land. This will greatly enhance the price of those lands, rapidly bring 
them into cultivation, and greatly improve the healthfulness of the country. It 
will tend to depopulate the hill countr}', and, indeed, the now called cotton belt of 
the negro. Yast areas now devoted to cotton raising will be given over to raising 
stock, grass, cereals, etc. For awhile, at least, these lands, unable to compete 
with the rich bottoms in cotton production, will be even cheaper than now, until 
they become possessed by the numerous immigrants from the North, the West 
and Europe. These immigrants will not raise cotton. They will go into general 
agriculture, and will resuscitate these lands by " clovering," green manuring, the 
use of marls, etc.; and fruits, vegetables, cereals and live stock of all kinds will be 
raised. One can see that if all the cotton be produced on land that will produce 
a bale or more per acre, and can be picked, that cotton can sell at much less and 
pay better than now. If the pork and corn be raised near that is consumed in 
making it, then the business of cotton raising alone may be pursued with profit. 
But all this is conjecture; and yet it looks as though the "cotton belt" of the 
South might be on the verge of an agricultural revolution. 

MILLING INTERESTS. 

Still another development of the South is in her flour and grist mills. 
Making flour from Southern raised wheat is growing to be a very considerable 
industry. We shall not only make all we need for home consumption, but we 
shall find a large market in the peoples south of us, and shall send early flour 
North before the wheat raised there is fit for use. 

It is hardly in place here, but may be noted, that the South will do an 
increasing business in making ale and beer from home-raised barley. Only a 
short time ago there were few breweries South. Now there are four considerable 



INTRODUCTION'. 39 

ones in New Orleans alone. The South can raise fine barley, and will take up 
this industry in time and brew her own beer. 

TIMBER RESOURCES. 

I come now to a topic which is of vast moment — an advanhigt' now impressing 
the whole world as no other advantage, except, perhaps, her mineral riches, does, 
although the latter docs not impress such a multitude — her incalculable resources 
in her virgin forests of superb hard wood, pine, etc. 

It would not be out of place here to give at length a list of the p.ants of the 
Soutli, but limits, already transgressed, forbid. Tlie South is vciy rich in her 
flora. Her altitudes and her climate vie in the production of plants; and as if by 
a beautiful caprice of nature, the stern nati\'e of austere climates elsewhere, here 
looks down fi-om his lofty higlit upon the tropical beauties at his feet. Hale, in 
his "The Woods and Timbers of North Carolina," on page 19, says: 

•' The mountains on the western border of the State are several hundred feet 
higher tlian any others in the Union, so that the difference of elevation between 
these and our sea coast occasions a ditfercnce of vegetation equal to that of 10 or 
12 degrees of latitude. Thus, upon tlie higher summits are found species such as 
belong to the Wliite Mountains of New Hampshire, those in the northeastern 
part of New York, and to Canada." 

In the census report on the forests of the United States it is said : 

"The pine belt of the Soutli Atlantic region still contains immense quantities 
of timber unecjualled for all ]>urposes of construction, although unsuited to take 
the place of the white pine of the North. • The Southern pme forests, although 
stripped from the banks of streams flowing into the Atlantic, are practically 
untouched in the Gulf States, especially in those bordering the Mississippi River. 
These forests contain sufficient material to long supply all possible demands 
which can be made upon them." 

In discussing the hard-wood resources of this section, the same report says: 

"Two great bodies of hard-wood timber, however, remain, upon which com- 
paratively slight inroads have yet been made. The most important of these forests 
covers the regions occupied l)y the Southern Alleghany Mountam system, embrac- 
ing Southwestern Virginia, West Virginia, Western iSTorth and South Carolina, 
ami Enstei-n Kentucky and Tennessee. Here oak unequalled in (luality abounds. 
* * * Tlie second great body of hard wood, largely oak, is found west of the 
Mississippi River, extending from Central Missouri to Western Louisiana." 

Elsewhere it is said that " the most valuable hard-wood forest remaining on 
the continent exists in Southwestern Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and North 
Carolina." 

The total amount of i)ine standing in the Southern States, as reported by the 
census, was as follows: 

Estimated Amount of Merchantable Pine Standing May 31, 1880. 

Long-leaved 1'ine, Short-leaved Pine, Loblolly Pine, 

Finns Austraiis. Finns Mitis. Pitius Tcpda. 

No. Feet, Hoard Measure. No. Feet, Board Measure. No. Feet, Board Measure. 

North Carolina 5,229,000,000 

South Carolina 5,316,000,000 

Georgia 16,778,000,000 

Florida 6,615,000,000 

Alabama 18,885,000,000 2,307,000,000 

Mississippi 18,200,000,000 6,775,000,000 

Louisiana 26,588,000,000 21,625,000,000 

Arkansas 41,315,000,000 

Texas 20,508,200,000 26,093,200,000 20,907,100,000 



Total 118,119,200,000 98,115,200,000 20,907,100,000 

Total of pine, all species 237,141,500,000 feet. 

The amount of pine standing in the whole country in 1880, not including the 
South, was about 94,000,000,000 feet, or much less than one-half of the quantity 
in the Southern States. 



40 INTRODUCTION. 

Dr. KeiT, in his special report as geologist in charge of the Southern Division 
of the United States Geological Survey, as to a portion of North Carolina, gives 
an interesting statement as to this vast range of flora within a comparatively 
limited latitude. The following is taken from his report : 

"It will hear restating and empliusizing, that no other commercial route in 
this country of the same lengtii as this railway, (with its navigable water connec- 
tion to the seaboard,) includes so wide a climatic range. A reference to the 
geological report of 187.") shows a range of mean annual temperature from 06° at 
the mouth of the Cape Fear, to 45° on the Grandfather i)lateau; and these are also 
the figures for Southern Alabama, Mississippi and Texas on one hand, and Canada 
and Sascatchewan on tiie other; that is, the climatic range along this route of less 
than 800 miles, direct line, is continentnl in extent — from su))-tropical to cold tem- 
perate.* The annual rainfall, given in the same report, for the Middle Region of 
the State is nearly foi-ty-six Indies, which is distributed in nearly equal amounts 
through all the months of the year. 

" The above facts— the variety of soils, the wide range of temper vre and the 
abundant rainfall — have, of course, found expression ni a corre' dingly great 
range of natural products; the flora having a really continent,, breadth and 
variety — from the palmetto and live oak on the one hand, to the Axlvite pine and 
Canadian tir on the other; so that what I have said in the geological report of the 
variety and richness of the forests of the entire State may'be applied, with scarce 
a modification, to this tract, wliich includes both the extremes that gave its unique 
breadth of climatic and botanical characteristics to the whole; that is, there are 
about one hundred species of woods — more than in all Europe. Of twenty-two 
species of oaks in the United States, (east of the Rocky Mountains,) nineteen are 
found here, all (eight) of the pines, four out of five spruces, all (five) of the 
maples, both of the walnuts, three of the five birches, six of the eight hickories, 
and all (seven) of the magnolias; more species of oaks than in all the States 
north of us. 

" Of the twenty kinds of timber admitted to the ship-yards of New York, 
nearly all are found here. The following is a partial catalogue of the commercial 
timbers common to one or another section along this tract: Pine, six species; 
white pine, fir, three species; hemlock, juniper, cypress, red cedar, oak, fourteen 
species; hickory, six species; walnut, two species; chestnut, beech, black locust, 
maple, three species; ash, four species; elm, three species; cherry, holly, dogwood, 
gum, tAvo species; sassafras, palmetto, magnolia, (cucumber tree,) persimmon, 
poplar, birch, two species; sycamore, tulip tree, (poplar,) linn, (basswood)— sixty- 
four species valuable for their timber." 

The favor into which Southern lumber has grown of late years is very sur- 
prising, especially pine and cyiDress. The latter wood grows in but few of the 
States. Mr. Thomas Hassan, Jr., secretary Mechanics, Dealers and Lumberman's 
Exchange of New Orleans, La., says of it: 

"The merits of this M'ood destine the trade in it to become one of the most 
important industries of this State. No other timber combines in so happy a 
degree the essential qualities of durability, cheapness and ease of manipulation. 
For factory work it has no equal, and sash, doors and blinds made of it are 
always preferred by builders. It is invaluable for ship building, its durability 
placing it second to live oak alone. In the cooperage industries it has, in this 
locality, for a long time, been in use. In house building it should be as strong 
with its cheaper rival, yellow pine, as its durability more than counterbalances 
the difference in price." 

Southern pine is rapidly winning its way mto popular favor in nearly all 
parts of the United States and also in foreign countries. The shipment of this 
lumber from Pensacola, Pascagoula, Mobile, Jacksonville and other Southern 
ports to Europe has become an enormous business during the last few years, and 
gives employment to many vessels, both sail and steam. From the same ports 
millions of feet of yellow pine are shipped to Baltimore, New York and other 
Northern cities, a very large fleet of fine coasting vessels being constantly engaged 
in this trade. The Western cities are also large consumers of this lumber, and in 



*" In Watauga, one readily imagines himself in Vermont or Ontario; and among the rice fields 
and palmettoes of the Lower Cape Fear, one has the agricultural landscape of the gulf coast." 



INTRODUCTION. 41 

this direction, as well as in tlie others already mentioned, the demand is steadily 

increaj-'ing. , , . ■ ^ c i„ 

The enormous timber resources of the South and the great variety of ^^oods 
to be found there, coupled with the remarkably low price at which the best tmiber 
can be purchased, give that section very superior advantages for the establis nnent 
of furniture factories and enterprises of a similar character. There are already 
quite a number of flourishing furniture flictories in the South, but so far they are 
mainly confined to the production of the cheaper grades. With the rapid mcrease 
of wealth in the South there is naturally a steady increase in the demand for high- 
priced furniture. The representative of a large Northern furniture factory which 
has an immense Southern trade has lately expressed to the writer his surprise at 
the noticeable increase of late in the amount of the very finest furnitui^ now sold 
in tint section At the present time, notwithstanding its almost limitless timber 
re'.ources the ''th buys the great bulk of its furniture, both cheap and high- 
priced in' the . .i-th and AVest. In tliis line there is a most excellent opening for 
those who understand the business and who desire to engage in manufacturing in 

the South. 1 +1 ;„ 

The general lumber business in the South is very prosperous, and there is 

hardly a manufacturing interest in the South so well diffused and developing so 

rapidly as this. In much of the pine-woods district of tlie South the saw mdl is 

the forerunner and foundation of the town. 

The increase in the last few years in the number and capacity ot saw mills in 

the South has been so enormous that the census statistics give but little idea of 

the present magnitude of this industry; but as no other statistics are obtainal)le. 

it may be worth while to give the census figures, as they show the extent of the 

hllRlTlf'SS in 1880- NUMBER OF TOTAL STEAM 

DUSintSS m lOOU. establishments. and water-.ower. 

^, , 354 9.234 

Alabama ^^^ 9^031 

Arkansas ^^^ 5^875 

Florida g * 15,300 

Georgia .■;;.■■.;.■.■.■.■ 670 17.587 

Kentucky ' 5^128 

Louisiana '.'.'.'.'.'..'.'.'.'. 369^ 7.464 

Maryland |^^ 8,266 

Mississippi jLI 16,895 

North Carolina '' g „6 

Sobth Carolina ^ 1 7,899 

Tennessee ' 10,222 

Texas. ■■■■ ^^^ 18,091 

Virginia..... \'\ 11,481 

West \ irginia ^' 

Total 6'^^^ ^'^'^'^ 

Tne agn-regate amount of capital invested in these 6,626 saw mills was nearly 
$05 000 000° While the number of saw mills has enormously increased since 1880, 
there has at the same time been a rapid increase in the number of other wood- 
workino- establishments. From Maryland to Texas many planing mdls, sash, 
door and blind factories and enterprises of a similar character are being built, a 
goodly proportion of them being constructed in the most substantial manner and 
fitted with the best machinery to be had in the country. 

ROSIN, PITCH AND TUKPENTINE. 
Another aspect of Southern development is in the i)roduction of rosin, pitch 
and turpentine. The increase in the business of turpentine and rosin manulacture 
has been very rapid. It is spreading in the pine woods in the South, wherever 
railroads open conveniences for shipping. It does not pay to haul the sap over 
ten or twelve miles to the " still." Any one who will study the statistics showing 
the growth of the trade of Mobile, Ala., and Savannah, Ga., conspicuously, can 
see how this branch of development has grown. 



43 INTRODUCTION. 

ADVANTAGES OF THE SOUTH. 

There are some advantages the South possesses and must ever possess over 
the North and "West. One of the most conspicuous of these is climate. Let us 
consider this in some of its more prominent aspects — saving in fuel, clothing, 
food to man and beast, etc. 

CL,mATE. 

Take fuel ; compute the consumption of the aggrega^^e of Southern cities and 
towns, and a like aggregate of population in Northern cities ; consider that the 
consumption of fuel over the average territory of the South and North would be 
fully three months longer in the latter than the former ; and the much greater 
consumption North during the months both use fuel for comfort, together with 
the three months mentioned, (when the South virtually docs not use it for com- 
fort,) would give fully three months advantage to the South over the North in 
saving fuel for comfort. 

Take the principal cities North — those of a population of 100,000 and 
upwards — New York, Philadelphia, Brooklj^n, Boston, Chicago, St. Louis, Cin- 
cinnati, Cleveland, Buffalo, Detroit, Jersey City, Newark, Milwaukee, Pittsburgh, 
Providence. These cities show in the aggregate, in the Census Report for 1880, 
4,086,467 people. Allowmg only fifty cents consumption of fuel per capita for 
three months, the aggregate will amount lo over seven millions of dollars. 
Surely it is much within bounds to say that all the other cities of the North con- 
sume three times as much more, and at least, at a like cost, for the time in question. 
An}' one can see then, that the South saves annually, a round sum of money, in 
the cost of fuel. Then, the cost of stoves, and above all, heating appliances will 
swell the cost of fuel to a much larger amount than I have named. In the South 
the open fire-place is most in vogue, and is all that is needed for much of the area, 
and is much more healthful. 

The farmer can estimate the cost of winter at the North — in the expense of 
feeding live stock five months in the year. Let us take some figures and make 
some computations upon them. Below is given a tabulation wiiich shows the live 
stock on farms in the States named, June 1, 1880. Several States and territories 
are omitted because there are some who Avould say of them: "They have their 
corn, and must feed it to their hogs and cattle, or they could do nothing. Their 
hay costs nothing but cutting, and it is worth nothing, for they can't sell it, as 
there is no demand." I give States where corn and hay are salable, and have a 
good cash value. The man who could, by some magic,' have green pastures there 
in winter, could certainly pocket the value of the hay and corn he is forced, at 
that time, to feed to his stock. 

MULES AND WORKING MILCH OTHER 

HORSES ASSES. OXEN. COWS. CATTLE. SHEEP.* SWINE. 

Connecticut 44,94© 539 28,418 116,319 92,149 59,43i 63,699 

Illinois 1,023,082 123,178 3,346 865,913 1,515,063 1,037,073 3,170,266 

Indiana 581,444 51,780 3,970 494,944 864,846 1,100,511 3,186,413 

Iowa 792,322 44,424 2,506 854,187 1,755,343 455,359 6,034,316 

Maine 87,848 298 43,049 150,845 140,527 565,918 731,369 

Massachusetts 59,629 243 14,571 i5o,435 96,0^5 69.979 80,123 

Michigan 378,778 5,083 40,393 384,578 466,660 2,189,389 964,071 

Minnesota 257,282 9,019 36,344 275,545 347,i6i 267,598 381,415 

New Jersey 86,940 9,267 2,022 152,078 69,786 117,020 219,069 

New York 610,358 5,072 39,633 i,437,855 862,233 1,715,180 751,907 

Ohio 736,478 19,481 8,226 767,043 1,084,917 4,902,486 3,141,333 

Pennsylvania 533,^87 22,914 15,062 854,156 861,019 1,796,598 1,187,968 

Rhode Island 9,661 46 3,523 21,460 10,601 17,211 14,121 

Vermont 75,215 283 18,868 217,033 167,204 439,870 76,384 

Wisconsin 352,428 7,136 28,762 478,374 622,005 1,336,807 1,128,825 

5,629,992 298,763 288,793 7,220,765 8.955,559 16,070,430 21,131,279 

♦Exclusive of spring lambs. 



INTR OB UGTION. 43 

Putting the cost of keep for winter, at $15 per head for horses ; for mules and 
asses, $12 per head; for working oxen, $12 each; for other cattle, $10 each; 
milch cows, $10 each; for sheep, per head, $1; for swine, each, $3, we have an 
aggregate cost for winter's feed of all the above animals*— $347,731,151. The 
sum is almost incredible. 

But some one may say will not these animals sell for so much more North 
than they would South as to pay all if not more than this higher cost of winter's 
" keep " at the North ? Well, the answers to this question are many. In the first 
place, for by far the larger proportion of this computation, the food contributed 
to support will not count as a factor in gain; for the animals are not fed for fat- 
tening with a view to sale. Steers, hogs and sheep, possibly, may ; but horses, 
mules, working oxen and milch cows are not. For all these the computation 
represents the bare cost of *' keep " and the maintenance of condition. If you 
shall say that the cost of keeping the other animals will be got back in their 
enhanced value, by reason of the fat they will lay on, the reply is, then you must 
increase the cost of the estimate upon them. Then, if milch cows are to be 
added to the gainful side, by reason of their butter or milk yield, more must 
be added to their cost of " wintering." In other words, are not plenty of people 
North and East willing enough to let one have the use of a cow for "wintering" 
lier? Can any one suppose, too, that the value of a cow North for her butter or 
milk is greater than at the South? Is milk anywhere in the South worth less 
than ten cents per quart? or butter worth less than twenty to twenty-five cents 
per pound ? Are not millions of pounds of Northern-made butter carried South ? 
Is not grass-flavored Southern butter from grade Jersey's Avortli from twenty-five 
cents to forty cents per pound ? Is not fancy all- Jersey butter worth from forty 
cents up to prices too high to be credited ? Do mules sell higher in the North 
than in the South? Is not the South the great market for them? Are not horses 
worth more South than North ? Is a hog worth more North, as compared with the 
South, than the cost of his winter's food? Pray, where does a large part of our 
pork come from ? What has kept the South poor so long but, among other things, 
buying Western pork ? — (soon, fortunately, to stop.) Where do Southern cities 
get their live hogs from? They are hauled from the West by hundreds of car- 
loads daily. Do we not get our best fat beeves from the North and West? 

But there are other aspects to this matter of winter's "keep" — a factor liard 
to weigh; an unknown quantity: the superior health of the animal South; or, 
rather, the greater cost of the inferior health North. Every one knows the bad 
efiects of confinement of sheep in close barns in winter. I have known of much 
money lost in one season in only one herd of fine Merinoes. Who does not know 
the impaired qualitj^ in wool in the change fi'om green to dry food in winter, and 
loice versa, in spring? The loss in cat'.le in these transitions is more or less b}' 
reason of diseases and complaints incident to it. Because we cannot compute it, 
it is none the less true. The fields of much of the South can be kept green the 
year round with blue-grass, the clovers, etc. On them every animal is naturally 
kept in better health than on the artificial food of corn and hay. 

There is a great temptation to dilate upon the enormous losses in some 
winters, and the very considerable every winter, in the aggregate, at the North 
and West, by the freezing of animals, or their death by some incident in connec- 
tion with cold. From this the South is absolutely exempt, except in parts of 
Texas, where the "Northers" sometimes catch stock. 



*In this estimate I did not rely on my own views, but recently submitted the matter to stock-raisers 
at the World's Exposition. Of course, the estimate varies according to length of winter, prices of 
feed, etc. I have, however, put the figures very considerably below the estimates of the gentlemen 
mentioned. 



44 INTRODUCTION. 

Tlie saving in food and clotliing to man, by reason of the climate, is a topic it 
would be interesting to explore at length ; but I can but barely touch upon it, 
hoping the reflection of the reader will supply my constrained meagreness of 
treatment. 

It must be obvious to the most superficial reflection that the mildness of our 
Soutliern climate dispenses largely with the necessity for meat to supply carbon 
or heat, in order to resist the rigors of Northern winters. It is no answer to say 
that much meat is eaten South. I am speaking of necessity, and not of clioice or 
habit. Meat is the large clement of cost in the support of life North in winter, 
and is indispensable there. Again, the mildness of the Southern climate over a 
large area gives the opportunity to draw largely for the support of life (and even 
for money-making) upon the winter garden. " Greens" of all sorts are to be had 
there in winter. The Irish potatoes planted in July or left in the ground bear a 
second crop, from which a winter's supply is to be had. Cabbages "set" in the 
fall grow through the winter. Lettuce and radishes can be planted at all times. 
So through the list. The ground from which the crops of corn, cotton, oats, 
wheat, rye, barley, etc., are taken is available for turnips, cabbages, carrots — what 
you will — and needs not to lie unutilized till spring. Your hens are laying eggs 
all winter, and chickens can be hatched in fall. Your ewes can be made to 
"lamb" in November. Your cows can "come in" when you please in winter. 
In large areas of the South the finest fish can be had much of the winter in the 
salt and fresh waters ; crabs, shrimp and oysters all w^inter in parts of the South ; 
and I do not elaborate the migratory birds that, forsaking the North in winter, 
bring choice contributions of the most prized food supply to both the epicure and 
poor man, in this season, to the South. 

In clothing, the aggregate of cost to be saved by the South in winter, as com- 
pared with the North, is very considerable. The increased quantity of wool in 
the character of goods worn North, of necessity, counts very heavily in money's 
worth, as compared with that worn South. It is one of the discomforts that 
Northern people suffer who " winter" pretty well South, in persisting in wearing 
the same clothing South they are habituated to at home. Less bed clothing is 
necessarj^, too. Lap blankets, bufialo robes, are a trifling expense South. Indeed,, 
there are hundreds of thousands of people South who never saw a buffalo robe. 
In an experience of a good many years South, I never have used, never have seen. 
a bufiVilo robe on but tAvo or three occasions. There are plenty of children of the 
poor in the South whose feet are innocent of shoes the wdiole year round. It is 
useless to say that they ought to wear them. They do not, and are very robust. 
I have seen plenty of children clad in next to nudit}'' in midwinter South, and 
they could not be more healthy than under this treatment. Then, blankets for 
horses are very rare. 

These matters may seem quite trivial, but aggregate them, and the cost will 
be found to be very considerable. Indeed, there is the germ of an industrial revo- 
lution in the thought that there is not the ratio of consumjjtion South to the ratio 
of production, as at the North and AVest. Look how much of the wool, pork,, 
hay, corn, wheat, etc., that the Northern man produces, wliich he and his stock 
must consume ! South, in w inter, he and his stock not only do not consume nmch 
of these, but he is producing at the very season the "Western man is consuming. 

In a view of "points," I ought not to omit the expense of buildings and barns, 
particularly tlie latter, so often expensive, which at the South find a substitute in 
comparatively cheap and open shelters. 

HEALTH. 

I have given some of the advantages tlie South possesses in her climate over 
the North and West. It is almost, if not a corollarj^ of her climate, that she has 



INTRODUCTION. 45 

has a great advantage in her superior health. In the article on Mississippi some- 
thing will be said generally on this topic, and, through the pages of this book 
comparisons are drawn here and there between some of the Southern States, 
and others in the country at large. But the theme is an important one, and 
cannot well be too much elaborated. And, first let me consider some well known 
facts, the bare statement of which ought to have great weight. It is known to 
every intelligent reader, that a very considerable area of the South is regarded as 
a sanitarium by much of the country at large, for diseases of the throat and lungs. 
It would be invidious to particularize the best localities South for the cure or 
amelioration of these complaints, even if their comparative merits could be deter- 
mined. The appreciation of the South in these regards, or rather, tlie utilization 
of her areas by the inhabitants of rigorous winter climates, is a matter of very 
recent date. While it is doubtless true that the wisdom of the selection of resorts, 
now greatly fiivored and patronized, has been vindicated by remedial and cura- 
tive results, it is also quite as true that there are probably many other localities 
as yet almost, or altogether unnoted, or, at least, not celebrated, where the lenitives 
of climate are quite as efficacious as the most cherished areas, for the regards in 
question. Because the unprized localities have as yet no appreci:ition, argues no 
more against them than the disregard of now celebrated areas argued against the 
latter a few years ago. I can see no reason why a very large area of the pine- 
woods belt of the South is not as near a specific for the complaints in question, as 
climate can be. It is quite certain that localities next to unknown by the countiy 
at large, have proven very beneficient to sufferers. Besides the suff"erers from 
catarrh, bronchitis and pulmonary consumption, those who suffer from rheuma- 
tism and neuralgia will find great relief in much of the South. I have mentioned 
the immense patronage of parts of the South, by sufferers from the complaints 
named, as a conclusive demonstration of the healthfulness of the Southern 
climate in the premises. My argument is offered by the Northern people them- 
selves, and therefore is not to be questioned. Is it necessary to arrn}' figures to 
show the fearful decimation of our race by lung and throat diseases? 

Another fact to be borne in mind is that the diseases of the South are largely 
of a class that are tractable and avoidable, nnd will lai-gely disappear by agricul- 
tural development. As is well known, remittent and intermittent levers constitute 
a large proportion of Southern complaints. These mostly yield readily to wise 
and prompt treatment. They can largely be avoided, even under present condi- 
tions, by prudence. Malaria, (which has its share in producing these complaints,) 
will disappear with improved agriculture, drainage, use of lime, etc. Manj^ 
localities North, once very sickly from malaria, are now healthy by reason of the 
latter. Better regard of dietetics and hygiene will work an immense improve- 
ment in the health of the South. The enormous consumption of salt pork, corn 
bread and cabbage — not to say coff'ee, South, is undoubtedly a fruitful cause of 
disease and death. Diseases of the stomach and bowels are certain to follow the 
use of such food. Eveiy physician knows hoAV certain complaints can almost be 
banished from localities by a change of food. The large use of fruits and 
vegetables. South, will work great changes in statistics of mortality in this 
section. One can readily see that, for sunnner's food. South, tlie use of pork, 
cabbage and corn bread, is certainly very injurious to health. 

Another point, almost impossible to be duly estimated by the average 
Northern reader, who does not know the South, is the mode of living of the 
average negro. As a whole, they are ill-fed, ill-housed, ill-clothed. They are, 
also, to the last degree, as a race, in the South, iniprovident and imprudent. 
Getting sick, they do not take medicine, and if they do, often guess at their 
complaint and its remedy, and often take nostrums. Often too poor to pay for 



46 INTRODUCTION. 

medical services, they dispense with them altogether, or send too late to save life^ 
They are the poorest of nurses in the world, and are too ignorant often to admin- 
ister medicine as prescribed. They liave very seldom tlie food a sicli person needs. 
Often when tliey should be in bed because of sickness or debility, they go to the 
field ; and this, too, from no irresistible impulse to industr}^ When one is in such 
a state of exhaustion from disease that composure is of the utmost or absolute 
importance, it is made the occasion of "calls" from numerous visitors, and the 
most noisy and often fatal demonstrations of sympathy or piety, or both. Then, 
cleanliness is not a distinction of the race; and I pass without mention diseases 
that must be left to conjecture. The negro as a race. South, has a great fashion 
of turning night into day. His nocturnal fashions are past describing and past 
finding out — mysterious and inscrutable. He is prone to " sprees," " cake walks," 
balls, "hoe-downs," religious gatherings, (long protracted,) in night time, etc. One 
can see that orgies night after night, long tramps, (in wet and dry,) to meetings 
and gatherings, and then work at day in the field, are not promotive of health. 
No wonder that the mortality of the race is marked, as compared with the whites. 
I have been somewhat explicit in order to show that the statistics of mortality 
South are not fair expositions of the Southern climate. If there Avas some way of 
obtaining statistics by classes, a fairer insight would be had; but, even then, con- 
ditions which militate against the South in the computation, ought to be eliniinated 
in justice to the climate, the diet, the imprudences, etc., of the people. In fine, the 
fault is not Avith the climate, but the people; and a quarter of a century will show 
changes in the South in her favor that will astonish the statisticians of that da}'. 

EXEMPTION FROM INSECTS. 

Another advantage the South possesses over the North and West is in her 
comparative exem])tion from the ravishes of insect pests. It is the opinion of at 
least two eminent entomologists, that the South must, (for much of her area,) be 
comparatively exempt from insect pests for two reasons: Her great rainfall and 
her mild winters. The former drowns the insects and washes the eggs from their 
places of deposit. As is well known, the rains in the South are frequently very 
heavy, torrential, and are verj'^ fatal to insect life. They are frequent, too, in the 
early spring — a season of ovipositing and hatching. Again, the mild winters keep 
the insects in a state of life, that, giving them insufficient heat for vigor, induces 
animation and speedy death. 

Any one who has read Professor Cj^rus Thomas' hroclmre on the chinch bug, 
{lygaeus Lcncopterns,) published a few years ago, will see what devastation this 
pest has wrought in some years in the West. It amounts to many millions of 
dollars. Very rarely, according to my investigations, does it accomplish much 
damage South. The Wc st well knows what it is, without any connnent on my part. 

The Hessian fly, I think, is nothing like so abundant here as at the North and 
West. It was supposed to have had, among its earliest footholds in this country, 
a place in North Carolina, but my investigations of it, in a part of the South 
where wheat is more or less raised, show it to be almost unnoted. 

The Rocky Mountain locust, it is almost sui)erfluous to say, cannot endure 
the South. Professor E. V. Riley has shown that this insect will never penetrate 
a certain atmosphere, which the South will always, humanly speaking, possess. 

The potato bug — Colorado beetle — {Doryphora decemlineata,) I have never 
seen South, and I have hunted and enquired for it, and sought to find it from 
those who would be apt to know of its advent. The Juncta is to be found, and is 
apt to be commonly mistaken for the former. 

I have noticed these common scourges among insects, because, among other 
matters, I think their absence and paucity go very far to sustain the views first 
enunciated under this caption. 



INTRODUCTION. 47 

VARIETY OF PRODUCTS. 

An advantage of the South, worthy a very thorough survey— which I shall 
■not attempt, is the numberless variety of her products. She has been reduced to 
the verge of beggary and temporary ruin by her wretched unpolicy in cultivating 
cotton so disproportionately. Suppose she could produce nothing else. The 
West is likely to suffer unspeakably before long, in those areas where she has 
only or can only raise wheat. In a considerable portion she cannot raise maize. 
In other areas the West cannot raise tlie cultivated grasses. But who shall 
enumerate wliat the South can produce? Fruits and vegetables have been con- 
sidered, and will be treated more at length in the article on Mississippi. To 
enumerate them all is impossible. Let one think of the range from the climate of 
the Siberian crab-apple to the orange and the pineapple, for fruits, and tbat in 
much of the South fruits of some kind are to be had much of the year, (think of 
the strawberry and the peach for six months !) and vegetables all the year. And 
the vegetables one cannot think of undertaking to enumerate. 

In the article on Mississippi are to be found a small list of grasses; but there 
are probably a hundred species strictly Southern, so to speak, not mentioned; and 
many grasses are green the year round. Cotton, ramie and jute, the South may 
be almost said to have a monopoly of; and silk culture can have no better climate 
in the known world, according to the best judgment of experts. 

In cereals the South can show a long list — Indian corn or maize, wheat, rye, 
barley, tlie oat, buckwheat,* rice. Then there are ginger, indigo, the tea-plant, 
etc., etc. Her plants I have touched upon; they range from the sugar-cane of the 
tropics to the pine of rigorous climates. An interesting paper might be made 
upon the medicinal plants and herbs of the South. A very interesting book has 
been written on them ; and in parts of the South it is a vocation of people to 
gather them in the wilds for the uses of pharmac3^ 

Consider all these resources in a mild climate, fertile soil abundantly watered 
by rainfall and never-failing streams, pierced b}^ navigable rivers, with inexhaust- 
ible coal and iron. watercourses. 

Another advantage the South possesses is in the distribution of her navigable 
rivers, and their communication with ocean highways. One must take a map and 
view the remarkable location of the South. With the exception of Tennessee, 
Kentucky and Arkansas, from Maryland, clear round to away west and south in 
Texas, there is no Southern State but may be said to have an ocean front. Into 
the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico empty streams which have their sources 
far in the interior. On these streams, at greater or less distances from their 
mouths, are situated the leading Southern cities. Before the era of railroads, 
water dictated the location of cities; and water of what one may term a navigable 
depth can never be superseded by railroads. In the past, water has p'ayed a most 
important part as a factor in the development of Southern cities. Look at her 
leading cities — Baltimore, Richmond, Norfolk, Wilmington, Charleston, Savannah, 
Mobile, New Orleans, Galveston. But in the future water is to play a still greater 
role than ever in the past. One illustration — that of the deepening of the ]\[issis- 
sippi River — shows what one great waterway may do. This came very nearly 
revolutionizing the grain transportation of this country. It saved (and will for 
all time save if the jetties act well) millions of dollars per annum to the AVestern 
farmers, by giving cheaper rates to Europe. It is probably destined to deflect 
greatly immigration from New York ; as if immigrants settle South, New Orleans 
or some other Southern port is their proper place of debarkation ; if West, they 



*Two crops per season. The best buckwheat I have ever seen was raised on the gulf coast, 
between Mobile, Alabama, and New Orleans, Louisiana. 



48 INTR OB TJCTION. 

are readily distributed there by Southern railroads running from the West to their 
point of debarkation. 

The import trade of the country, especially that of the West, is likely to be 
shared largely by the South. 

But these rivers emptying into the ocean and the Gulf of Mexico penetrate 
far into the interior in the South. Almost every navigable river has its source in 
mountains, and is of unfailing flow. The Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean 
furnish vast reservoirs for unfailing evaporation ; and Ijy a stupendous harmony, 
the mountains compel the clouds to a deposition of their moisture, to flow down 
again in unceasing current to the source. Thus the Southern sun lifts the ocean, 
and the mountains take the welcome burthen; and this must ever be. However 
science may vacillate about the forests making more or less rainfall, the ocean 
must rise in vapor at the bidding of the sun; the clouds must obey the stern 
command of the haughty altitudes of the Apalachian chain. 

I have said that Arkansas, Tennessee and Kentucky are the only Southern 
States that have not an ocean front; but, except for certain conditions and for 
purposes of transportation, they virtually have. The Mississippi River rolls past 
the whole eastern front of Arkansas, and rivers from away up in the interior of 
the State bear down her products. Past AVestern Tennessee the Mississippi flows 
the entire latitude of the State. Then Kentucky shares the benefit of the Missis- 
sippi River to Cairo, 111. At Cairo the Ohio joins the Mississippi. From Cairo 
the Ohio is the western boundary of the State up to the State of Ohio. At 
Paducah, Ky.,the Tennessee River comes in, after its rise in its sources in Western 
North Carolina and East Tennessee, and watering much of the latter. It sweeps 
well down into Alabama; then runs along much of the northern part of this 
State; then is deflected north, and courses clear through Tennessee and a part of 
Kentucky. The Cumberland, after watering much of Northern Tennessee and 
part of Kentucky, joins the Ohio. 

The possibilities of this river system no one can predict. It is certain to play 
a great part in the future of these States. Their grain, flour, live stock, iron, coal, 
etc., will be immense interests in the future. Take the river system of Alabama 
and East Mississippi. See the future these rivers have before them ! ' 

It would be a matter of great interest to show the vast sums of money which 
are to be saved to the South in the development of her coal and mineral interests. 
Messrs. C. A. Miltenberger & Co. (to whom I here express my obligations for 
information) show, in their last annual statement, that there were consumed in 
New Orleans in 1884 3,864,300 barrels of Pittsburgh coal. The consumption has 
increased since 1869, beyond which year I have not their figures. The average 
price for the year was about 30 cents per barrel wholesale. There were over 
700,000 barrels of Tennessee and Alabama coal received. This is over 4,500,000 
barrels received at New Orleans. Pittsbui-gh coal has sold at from $1.50 to 
$2.25 per barrel retail. At wholesale it used to bring 75 cents per barrel. Thus 
there is saved to New Orleans the sum of at least $2,000,000 by the- advent of 
Alabama coal. Now, Pittsburgh coal by water competes with Alabama coal by 
rail. The former is 2,000 or more miles from New Orleans by water; the latter 
is, say, 300 miles. Can anything better show the value of water for cheap trans- 
portation ? 

General J. W. Burke, Collector of Customs at Mobile, Ala., in a speech before 
the Joint Committees of the Merchants' Exchange and Cotton Exchange of that 
city, says, on page 25 of the pamphlet containing his address: *' As late as 1878 
the government paid for the coal furnished its vessels at the gulf ports from $8.00 
to $13,00 per ton. To-day, coal is furnished at the rate of $3.40 per ton." 



INTRODUCTION. 49 

Capt. A. C. Banner, of Mobile, Ala., a gentleman most conversant with the coal 
trade of the Southwest, and who is most prominently connected with its develop- 
ment, says, in a letter to the Baltimore Manufacturers' Record of January 19, 1884: 

" Now, of the six rivers that we have in the State, five of them run right 
through coal beds. It is true that the coal beds are situated on the headwaters, 
and above present navigation ; but these streams can and will be made navigable 
as far up as the coal beds. 

" And then there are magnificent tracts of coal lands now within twenty or 
thirty miles of the navigalile part of one of these rivers — a river that never 
freezes up, and that is navigable eight months in the year. When these coal 
lands last referred to are developed, and a railroad built to the river, with barges 
and tug-boats, coal can be dumped on to the barges at the cost of $1.10 per ton. 
It can then be transported to Mobile in large quantities at a cost for freight of 
less than 50 cents per ton, and transferred from the barge to a ship for, say, 10 
cents per ton. Add 50 cents for incidentals, interest and profit, and we have coal 
put f. 0. h. a vessel in a good port (Mobile is now the cheapest port for vessels in 
the United States) at the price of $2.20 per ton. 

" No coal in the world can then compete with Alabama coal in all the markets 
of the Pacific coast and of the Gulf of Mexico. 

"Mobile will supply South America, Cuba, Jamaica, the "Windward Islands, 
California, Mexico, Texas and Florida." 

These illustrations are given to show the value of water transportation, and 
that the rivers of the South, in parts, penetrate, in many instances, very rich 
mineral tracts. In other parts of the South the same may be said of a number of 
their rivers. But, besides transportation for the future flour, cereals, live stock, 
hay, the products of the mine and manufactories of various kinds, the rivers and 
streams will play a most important part in furnishing cheap, abundant, never- 
failing, never-freezing water-powers for the future factories of the South. Much 
of this is given elsewhere; but the following, from the pen of the Commissioner 
of Agriculture for Alabama, will be of interest here. On page 119 of a pamphlet 
recently issued, he sa3^s : 

" The Tennessee River, having a volume of water greater than the Ohio, 
desceuils for a space of thirty miles over a series of shoals, creating an amount of 
power greater than is to be found anywhere on the continent within the same 
■cV)mpass. The canal now in course of construction, and upon which upwards of 
three millions of dollars, under appropriations by the general government, super- 
vised by its own officers, have been already spent, and which will be completed in 
less than two years, will, it is estimated, afford power enough, without impairing 
its efficiency for purposes of navigation, to turn all the machinery in New Eng- 
land. The Coosa, tlironghout a still greater extent of its course, affords power, 
in the aggregate, little inferior in magnitude to that of the Tennessee." 

The agriculturist and stock -raiser can appreciate the value of these rivers 
when he knows that they are supplied by hundreds of streams and thousands of 
rivulets forever dancing in sparkling joy through the meadows and over rocks, in 
dells, along from their unfailing sources in the mountains. The dairyman will 
cherish the spring-houses, and the stock-raiser and fanner will find perennial 
water for his flocks and herds ; and a matter of no small consideration is it now, 
and hereafter will be a greater one, (in the great future of the South,) that cities 
and towns lo and may have cheap and unfailing supplies of the clearest and 
purest water; and as many of these streams already contain abundance of tine 
fish, while many of them will be thickly populated hereafter by the wise provi- 
dence of the Southern States,* the people of the future South will find one of the 
best species of food for the support of man. 

CHEAPNESS OP LAND. 

Another most striking advantage of the South is in her cheap lands. The 
shrinkage in the value of lands at the South, by reason of the war and its correl- 



*Several Southern States have already addressed themselves to supplying their streams with fish. 



50 INTRODUCTION. 

ative, the abolition of slavery, is past computation. An estimate would be 
complicated by impairment in intrinsic value through wasteful tillage ; but it is 
quite certain that there is an extrinsjc depreciation of an enormous measure. 
The South possesses many millions of acres now open t© investment, which, for 
some of the purposes of agriculture, are as good as ever. Then, none of her 
lands but are capable of resuscitation. It is quite true that it will take years and 
wise management to restore the Southern " worn-out " lands, so called, to their 
primitive fertility; but we have irrefragible proofs of their capability of resusci- 
tation and production in the " intensive " culture more and more obtaining, and 
the results of the use of commercial fertilizers. The wise use of flie inexhaustible 
marls of the South, "clovering," turning under green crops, proper rotation of 
crops, subsoiling, sheep raising and many other aspects of improved agriculture, 
are yet to play their parts — as yet, almost untried — in the future agriculture of 
the South. There are lands for sale in the South, ready for the plow, in vast 
areas — millions of acres that can be had at from one-fifth to one-tenth their value 
before the war. I know of some of the finest lands in the world that sold for 
from fifty to one hundred dollars and more per acre, now purchaseable at from 
five to fifteen dollars per acre. 

Another consideration the Northern and "Western farmer must not forget is, 
that the bulk of Southern arable lands have only been " scratched." The average 
of Southern lands are not "broke" for over two or three inches deep, and vast 
stores of fertility lie accessible to better culture. Then there are millions of acres 
of fine woodland absolutely undesecrated by the superficial tillage of the South — 
virgin soils the richest in the world. These can be had at merely nominal prices, 
and await the thrift of a new husbandry to be inaugurated, with all and more 
than the cheapness of a new and unsettled country; with all our advantages of 
climate and thicker population, and the other incidents of civilization in schools, 
churches, railroads, a settled state of society, low taxes, competing modes of 
transportation, etc., etc. 

Is not an acre of land in the South that will produce all and much more than 
an acre in Iowa, Ohio or New York, with products as valuable, and that sells for 
five to ten dollars per acre, worth quite as much for production as an acre that 
sells for from thirty to one hundred and fifty dollars per acre? The enhancement 
in value of the land — its selling price — is only a question of time South. 

As to titles, they are, in almost all the South, of the very best character. 

As to taxes, they are a mere bagatelle. Lands are general assessed very low — 
probably on an average of five dollars per acre at most — that is, farm lands. 
Taxation is very generally prohibited by the constitutions of the various Southern 
States in excess of one and a-half per cent, on the assessed value. A man with a 
very small farm in the Middle States and New England pays for more than one in 
the South with a thousand acres of good land. Then there are few Southern 
States where the onerous burthens of taxes for building railroads must be paid, 
as at the West. 

It must be remembered by all thinking of buying lands South, that the 
impairment in price of Southern lands is not impairment in value. Climate is 
left. Conditions more favorable to the happiness, thrift and influence of the 
white farmer obtain now, than when lands were from five to ten times as high in 
price. Railroads are built or building, of which there were few South before the 
war, and add their great influence to a true enhancement of values. Immigration 
is coming in. The foolish notion that white men cannot stand Southern climate 
is abundantly disproved by tens of thousands of Europeans and Northern men in 
Texas, Arkansas, North Carolina, Georgia and other States. The grasses have 
been tried and found quite equal, if not superior, to the same North and West. 



INTRODUCTION. 51 

Stock raising in all branches and dairying have proven not only practicable, but 
profitable and easy. The immeasurable benefits of multifarious industries is the 
promise of the future, with potent, yet comparatively small, earnests in our 
present cotton mills, iron furnaces, flour mills,&c. These are some of the bene- 
fits that make our lands truly much more valuable than before the war. If they 
were worth then from thirty to one hundred dollars per acre, they are worth twice 
as much now. They only sell for from five to fifteen dollars per acre now; but 

wait ten years ! ^ -i i i • 

Akin to this topic of cheap lands is the proximity of the most fertile lands in 
the country to the mineral lands of the South, and to what will some day be the 
seat of the great manufacturing interests of this country ; for be it remembered the 
South will combine the predominant features of New England industrial life with 
h-on and its cognate industries. Space forbids the elaboration of this matter of 
the proximity of the rich lands of tne South to the future great centres of manu- 
facturing industr5^ Let any one, however, contemplate the exhaustless fertility 
of the bottom lauds in Louisiana, Arkansas, Mississippi and Tennessee. There 
can be raised enough breadstuff's to support the entire South, to say nothing of 
other areas. It is hardly four hundred miles from the farthest point of these rich 
lands to the great mineral lands of the South, with easy grades for railroads; no 
chances of trains ever being incommoded by snows, and with low prices of con- 
struction. More than this, a large part of the area is pierced by navigable rivers 
running from this rich territory into much of the most noted mineral areas. Let 
one take a map and look across the country from the bottoms of the Mississippi 
River to East Tennessee, North Carolina, Alabama and Western Georgia. It will 
then be seen what is the proximity. And this is leaving out of account milliona 
of acres in fertile valleys m the mineral States. 

Now, the "West is a long way from New England, Pennsylvania and New York. 
All these States have largely ceased raising cereals. They leave this to the West; 
and the West must send them over expensively-built roads a long distance to the 
consumers East. As is well known, New England may be said to raise no bread- 
stufi"s. She has her naturally poor land in grass and fruits, and raises these and 
poultry and makes butter for her cities and towns, so dependent upon her manu- 
factories for support. The fertility and cheapness of land West have made the 
Eastern States no longer the breadstufifs producers of the country. 

Now, our Southern rich lands are near for the cheap breadstufi's. They unite 
the advantages of fertility, proximity, low grades for cheaply-built railroads, with 
all the cheapness of far-off Western lands. The East has the short haul of 
products, but very high-priced lands. The AYest has the low-priced lands, with 
the long haul The South unites both advantages of low-priced lands and short 
hauls. 'Both North and West the climate is rigorous and fuel high-priced; South, 
just the reverse. Now, the South can raise, near her future large manufacturing 
cities, fruits, vegetables, poultry, hay, beef, mutton, wool, and can dairy on cheap 
lands ; and all these she can raise, not for a season, but all the time. This will 
give great enhancement to the value and price of these lands. There cannot be a 
reason why these lands shall not always be valuable, because these future cities 
will flourish by reason of inexhaustible supplies of raw material and the exemp- 
tion from a ruinous competition. If iron and cotton manufacturing industries 
were new, or if the South had long ago embarked in them, these lands would 
have been'high-priced, because large cities would have been built. Then, instead 
ol lands from which to feed artisans selling at ten and fifteen dollars per acre, 
they might have been as high as the same land situated North and East. But 
now the°se lands enter the lists to buttress Southern competition, and add their 
formidable strength to the struggle ; and so great is the present production, as 



52 INTRODUCTION. 

compared with consumption, of materials from cotton and iron, that a little added 
from the South makes a formidable factor in these affairs. Soon, as has been said, 
there must be desertion of cotton manufacturing East, and an immense increase 
m iron manufacturing South. Then will come the demonstration of the immense 
value of our rich lands being within a day or two's transportation of our great 
mining and manufacturing centres. 

RAINFALL. 

Yet another advantage the South possesses is in her rainfall. The rainfall of 
each of the several States is given as they are treated of hereafter. It is a well- 
known fact that the first portion of a rainfall contains ammonia, and therefore the 
greater the rainfall the greater the ammonia. In this fact, with the large rainfall 
at the South, if the soil be in proper condition to absorb it, there is a very consid- 
erable advantage. It is certain that this heavy rainfall in winter, together with 
much of the warmth of the sun, are what promote the growth of the grasses, 
vegetables, etc., at the South in winter. In most of the South there is, in strict- 
ness, neither a dry nor wet season. Sometimes there are disastrous drouths in 
the South, as over the country at large; but, on the other hand, sometimes 
the heaviest rainfalls are during the summer months; and the South is so cir- 
cumstanced that her dryer weather (in late spring and summer) cannot often 
work disaster, as is frequently done North and "West. The cereal crops of the 
South are frequently "made" before the dry weather comes. It is seldom very 
dry before July in much of the South. By that time, oats, rye, barley, wheat and 
com are generally "made," or beyond frequent great injury. Cotton can endure 
much dry weather at the dryer season South. Blue-grass, clovers, orchard grass 
and others give way, generally, by July, and Bermuda grass, Japan clover and 
other dry-weather-enduring grasses have been in full vigor months before; so 
that live stock ao not suffer as they would had we not these latter grasses. If 
any one will consult the charts in the Tenth Census of the United States, it will 
be found that rather more than half the annual rainfall of the South is in spring 
and summer, and one will see that the greater spring and summer rainfall is in 
the Southern States. These are facts of the utmost consequence in agriculture, 
and should duly impress the farmer. Prof. Henry Gannett, E. M., in the volume 
entitled " Population" of the last census, on page 63, thus says : 

"The prosperity of a country depends largely upon its rainfall, as, to a very 
great extent, the primary industry — that upon which all others depend directly — 
viz : agriculture, may be said to flourish in a degree directly proportioned to the 
amount of moisture. Of rainfall this country receives in its clifferent parts a very 
different supply. Throughout the eastern half of the United States the rainfall is 
ample lor all purposes of agriculture; while in the western half, with the excep- 
tion of a narrow strip along the Pacific coast, the supply is veiy deficient. With 
the exception of the Cordilleran Region, our rainfall is nearly all derived from the 
Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. Of the two, the principal source is the 
gulf. The warm, moist currents which accompany the Gulf Stream from the 
Caribbean Sea are not deflected toward the eastward in the Gulf of Mexico, as 
the great oceanic river is, but pass northward and eastward over the land in a 
broad belt extending from the coast of Texas to the peninsula of Florida. 
Judging from its effects in the form of rainfall, the central portion of this current 
passes over Eastern Louisiana and Mississippi aud Western Alabama. The 
natural result of leaving the wann ocean surface and entering the continent is to 
cool these air currents and make them deposit their vapor. The heaviest deposit 
is along the northern shore of the gulf, in the States of Louisiana, Mississippi 
and Alabama, and the western part of Florida, where the rainfall reaches sixty 
inches per annum. Were there no mountains or other irregular topographical 
features to modify the rainfall, this wave would move inland in a northeasterly 
direction, the precipitation decreasing eastward, northward and westward, the 
lines of equal rainfall taking the form of great concentric ellipses. This form Ave 
see rougnly outlined in tlie western part of the Mississippi Valley, the rainfall 
decreasing regulariy to the northward and westward. To the northeastward. 



INTRODUCTION. 53 

however, these moisture-laden currents encounter the southern end of the Apala- 
chian chain, and are ckiven at once up to high altitudes, where they are torced to 
disgorge their vapor, giving to this end of the mountain system a heavy rainfall; 
while farther along the chain, toward the northeast, the rainfall diminishes, 
becoming even less than that of the lower country on the east and west. The 
portion of the moisture-laden current which passes to the eastward of the Apala- 
chian chain meets and mingles with moist air currents coming directly from the 
Atlantic, and produces, in the central parts of North and South Carolina, an area 
of abnormally heavy rainfall. A second source of moisture is the Atlantic Ocean. 
Here the moist air currents from the Gulf Stream produce a line of heavy rainfall 
along the Atlantic coast, reaching from Florida to the neighborhood of the Bay 
of New York. This strip is quite narrow% being confined to the coast and its 
immediate neighborhood. Back of that, and over the greater portion of the 
Atlantic plain, the precipitation is notably less." 

He then says further on, as to whether the "Cordilleran Region" can be 
redeemed by " a judicious system of cultivation and tree planting :" " It is doubt- 
ful whether that effect can be produced by this or by any other means within the 
power of man." ^ „ 

*^ MARLS. 

An advantage of incalculable proportions is the vast and inexhaustible wealth. 
of the marls of the South. They are of great variety in their components, but 
most of them, with proper know^ledge Oi their qualities, can be made great aids 
to agriculture. In the future days of stock raising and grass growing in the 
South, these marls will play a most important part. They are known to be in all 
the Atlantic States of the South. They are very abundant in parts of Mississippi 
and Alabama, and, indeed, it is probable that no Southern State is without them. 
To compute their value would be idle. Were I to quote the language of scientists 
in praise of them, it would sound very extravagant to many. There are few richer 
marls certainly than those of South Carolina, and other States may yet prove to 
have equally as rich. The reader will find something more at large in the articles 
on South Carolina and Mississippi. There is no doubt that the South far surpasses 
the rest of the country in this most valuable wealth. 

Another advantage the South offers is the opportunity for the loan of money 
on her lands and otherwise— cotton mills, etc. — at a high rate of interest and on 
long time. No greater good could be conferred on the South; no safer investment 
can be found. Lands at from one-fifth to one-tenth their value under slavery, 
when there w^ere few railroads, no immigration ; when there was nothing but an 
agricultural spirit marking the South, are burdened with mortgages paying eight 
to ten per cent, interest. These lands are now far more valuable than before the 
war. Slavery is a thing of the past. Immigration is coming in. The manufac- 
turing era is inaugurated. Railroads are built. The capital and enterprise of the 
world yearns for the South. Here is a chance to loan hundreds of millions of 
capital on the best security of the age. 

Banking facilities in the South are limited, and here is offered a fine opportu- 
nity for investment. National banks in the manufacturing towns pay, in some 
mstances, enormous dividends. There are many growing towns where banks are 
badly needed. 

The purchase of the stock of cotton manufactories opens another fine field 
for the investment of capital, as does the purchase of forests, pine lands, the 
construction of manufactories of one kind and another. 

One feels tempted to aggregate the value of the development in railroads, 
mines, manutactories, cereal production, etc., but I pass it. 

It w^ould seem necessarily inferable from what has been said in this intro- 
duction, that the South will soon raise her own breadstuffs; that with corn, 
wheat, oats, pork, hay, sheep, beef, lard, butter, cotton seed, etc., we shall soon 
utterly dispense with these from the North and West. It seems very probable 



54 INTRODUCTION. 

that we shall, before long, be competmg with the North and West in their own 
markets, by sending them our cheaply raised beef, early lambs, wool, our grass- 
flavored winter butter, our cheese, as we now send them our early fruits and 
vegetables. It is also likely that our own canned fruits, vegetables, fish, oysters, 
shrimp, etc., will S(wn furnish a Southern sui)ply, and that w^e shall send consider- 
able of these (as is now done on an extensive scale in one Southern State — 
Maryland) for consumption outside the South. I believe that, before ten years, 
most of the cotton mills of the country will be in the South, and I dare to hope 
tliat the South will ere long manufacture the bulk of the cotton goods for the 
world's consumption. We shall soon raise silk largely and manufacture it at 
home. I expect to see the South the seat of woolen mills, manufacturing the 
finest goods from wool sheared from the delicate breeds of sheep raised South — 
fi-om sheep too delicate to be raised North and West. We shall raise all our 
own horses and mules. In twenty-five years we shall see scores of cities (of 
which Birmingham and Anniston, Ala., Roanoke, Va., and one or two more, are 
the present hints and signs,) South, where all our iron and steel used in every 
shape will be made, and many goods from these sent elsewhere; where locomotive 
works, manufactories of railroad cars, cutlery works, agricultural implements, 
cotton-manufacturing machinery, wagons, carriages, furniture, woodenware, build- 
ings for export and much more will be found. I hope to see the South the great 
seat of iron steamship building of the United States. We shall see paper mills 
on Southern streams manufacturing paper for all the South, and selling in con- 
siderable quantities outside. Our boots, shoes,. harness and all articles of leather 
consumed South will be made here. We shall ere long manufacture all our own 
flour and meal from our ow^n home-raised cereals, and be sending Southern-made 
flour to the country south of us in great quantity ; and we shall make the barrels 
in which to pack it here out of our own lumber. 

The South has yet to experience through all her arteries the invigorating 
influence of cheaper money. It would be risking little to say that ten per cent, is 
a low estimate of what the money invested in manufactories has cost for hire. 
When it is seeking the South, as some day it will, at half that rate, an amelioFa- 
tion of present conditions, an impetus to new and many, and an enlargement of 
old industries, will follow, of which one can have but a small conception. 

The South unites some wonderful factors — her rivers, ocean and gulf for 
transportation, an.l their cheap food supply; the water-powders of her streams, 
which are perennial and never frozen; her mild climate and ever bounteous land ; 
cheapness and inexhaustibleuess of fuel; the cheapness and fertility of her lands; 
low prices of building materials; cheap raw materials; wonderful wealth in 
forests and mines; proximity to marrets; her railroads, etc. 

Many will call most that has been written "rosy," "visionary," "exaggerated." 
That is to be expected. I ask that the sincere doubters— those who are not pre- 
determined and ready-made— to read the following. It is from no romancing 
vagarist or prejudiced sectionalist. Rhetoric and exaggeration are aloof from his 
style and habit. He is used to dry facts, to cautious statements ; he enumerates 
rather than describes. It is from "Farm and Factory: Aids to Agriculture from 
Other Industries," by J. R. Dodge, M. A., statistician of the Department of Agri- 
culture of the United States. As has just been said, these are not the vagaries of 
an enthusiast. They are from one used to a sober and staid style of writing; 
whose habits of investigation are most careful ; who finds, and does not invent : 

" The territory lying between the Potomac and the Rio Grande, including 
eleven States, is eighteen times as large as the State of Ohio, and fully three and 
a-half times the size of France or Germany. Its surface is diversified by moun- 
tains, with extreme elevation above six thousand feet. Its soil is of great variety 
—from light sands to heavy clays— and unfathomed alluvial deposits. The rainfall 



INTRODUCTION. 55 

is abundant and seasonable — from forty to sixty inches per annum; springs of 
pure water are so numerous as to supply largely the place of wells m farm econ- 
omy, and rivers furnish a perennial supply of power for possible manufactures. 

" It is a healthful and beautiful land, redolent of flowers and surfeited with 
wild fruits, while cultivated fruits of the temperate and sub tropical zones grow 
profusely with little care or cultivation. The dweller in a forest cabin can subsist 
in luxury on fish and flesh and fruits, with venison, turkey or duck upon his table 
daily, with no labor beyond that of the angler or huntsman. The climate is so 
mild that his house could be constructed with a few days' labor in tlie primitive 
forest, and the fuel for his cuisine and comfort could be gathered within a furlong 
of his door, 

" Though the rainfall is distributed through the summer, it comes in showers, 
and not in long seasons of drizzling mists, leaving the landscape bathed in sun- 
shine through nearly all the hours^of daj'light. While the temperature ishigh, 
the heats are abated by breezes from the gulf and ocean, and the lowest latitudes 
have cool and comfortable nights, favoring sleep and recuperation. Evaporation 
of heavy rainfall cools the earth, and abundant shade subdues the noonday heat, 
for it is a country wooded as well as watered, the farm lands having an average 
of fifty-four per cent, of their area in forest. 

" It is a country favorable to health and conducive to high physical comfort. 
Life is rich and full and joyous in this sunny land. In the summer days, a vaca- 
tion in the mountains, to the dwellers of the cotton belt, is a physical luxuiy; and 
the variety and purity of the thermal and mineral waters of the slopes and 
plateaus of the Alleghanies are among the wonders of nature. 

" The coal, iron, and a long list of minor minerals, are found in great abun- 
dance, and are mined at little cost. The long range of mountains, on the eastern 
and southern slopes of which these States lie, stretch fringe-like ridges through 
the lower areas, piercing the cotton region with fuel-bearing lines. In the centre 
of Alabama are hills solid from surface downward with ore so rich that two 
selected tons will make one of pig iron; so accessible that it has been mined with 
a crowbar, and so cheap that fifty cents would place a ton of it upon the cars. 
And there is abundant coal near by, and limestone for fluxing purposes. This 
land has been sold for taxes in the days of the cotton craze, because not suited to 
the best results in fibre growing. 

"The live oak, the Southern pine, the cypress, the black w^alnut, the wild 
cherry, the 'white-wood' poplar, and a great variety of cabinet woods, and those 
used in the industrial arts and in building, await the demands of commercial and 
manufacturing enterprise. There may still be seen black walnut fences rotting 
by the roadside; still the most valuable woods are 'girdled' to make a clearing 
for the field of the settler, and a pioneer holocaust consumes remorselessly the 
wealth of the forest which is the accumulation of a hundred years. 

" These bare hints of the wealth of nature in the South, which might be 
extended to a volume of detail without exhausting the subject, show that this 
fertile domain was not intended for a sparse population or a single product or 
mere agriculture, but for all arts, all culture, and a dense population of industrious 
and thrifty people. This prodigality of resources was not intended merely to 
garnish a desert with beauty. "The hidden ores and darkling coals were not 
merely for unconscious trampling of hunters, red or white, but for the use and 
comfort of man. The people of this favored territory are beginning to realize 
and to appropriate these values, which are a cipher without labor, but millions 
with it. 

" The population is sparse— 12,990,246 people occupying 732,471 square miles, 
showing a density of 17.7 to the square mile. There is still elbow room. For 
every man here there are six in Germany and five in France. In Belgium there 
are twenty-seven for every man in the South. 

"The farm area of this great district is forty-two per cent, of the whole, and 
only one-seventh is 'improved' or productive land, and a part of this is yearly in 
fallow. Counting only that which bears tlie crops of the year, exclusive of some 
wild lands depastured, there is only one acre in ten that renders actual service in 
agriculture. 

" In comparison with districts more populous and less exclusively agricultural, 
the proportion of land in farms and of ' improved ' land was in 1879 : 

ACRES IN FARMS. PER CENT. ACRES IMPROVED. PER CBNT. 

Cotton States 197,002,545 42 67,350,802 14.4 

Ohio Valley States 98,119,094 88.8 68,861,666 62.3 

Middle States 47,592,113 72.9 33,984,124 52 

New England 21,483,772 54.1 13,148,466 33.1 



56 INTRODUCTION. 

"The northern portion of New England is mountainous and very rough, and 
much of the surface quite unavailable for agriculture, and there is a portion of 
the Middle States that is very rugged and yet in wilderness. The Ohio basin has 
therefore a relatively larger improved area than any other district. 

"When the sixt3"-seven million acres, as above, represented the improved land 
of the cotton States, the area actually tilled was about fort}'- four million acres. 
There has been rapid enlargement of cultivation in four years, and the crops in 
tillage now occupy tifty-three million acres. About three millions of this increase 
is in cotton, and more than four millions in corn. There are now growing in 
these eleven States about seventeen and a-lialf million acres in cotton and nearly 
twenty-four millions in corn. Thus almost four-fifths of the tillage is in these two 
crops. It is too large a proportion, and the earnest and persistent endeavor of 
Southern farmers should be to enlarge this miscellaneous fifth to a full third at a 
very early day. 

" Three-fourths of this remainder is in wheat and oats, which should have a 
greater breadth, and a large extension of sugar-cane is imperatively required, as 
well as of orchard fruits, market gardening, various fibres, forage for stock feeding, 
plants for oil production, and a multitude of exotic plants which might be intro- 
duced for use as aliment, in medicine and in the arts. There is no part of the 
United States, except on the Pacific coast, where such variety is possible in agri- 
culture as in the States of the South. 

"The census statement of value of farm productions makes an aggregate 
value for 18T9 of $547,567,526. This does not include meats of any kind, or the 
milk used in the families of farmers, or the fruits consumed at home, which may 
be estimated at about $322,000,000, making an aggregate of $770,000,000 in round 
numbers, which is equivalent to $59 per cainta, while the average to all engaged 
in agriculture (farmers and farm laliorers) is $241. 

" This is scarcely $300 for each family, and should be largely increased by 
greater variety of production, more effective labor-saving implements and advan- 
cing progress in scientific agriculture. But this can never be fully attained 
without progress, prt/'^ passu, in the industrial arts, which demand varied culture 
of hpad and hand, and the latest results of scientific research and inventive genius 
in application to labor in every industry. 

" JSTor will $300 per annum suffice to supply all the wants of a family, and 
allow a little surplus for acquisition of a competence; scarcely a remainder for a 
'rainy day' or the disabilities of age. To the values of products of agriculture 
must be added those of mining and manufactures in all the rich variety suggested 
by the natural resources of this region. 

"The events of the past year give assurance of growth in manufactures as 
rapid as can be desired. The extension of the cotton manufacture is a prominent 
example of the advance in other directions. New cotton mills in Virginia, North 
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Tennessee have been erected the 
present year,* costing from fifty thousand to four hundred thousand dollars each, 
and requiring many millions of dollars of capital. Between January and May, 
Southern investments in new manufacturing and mining enterprises, as reported 
by a Baltimore paper, amount to over fifty-five million dollars, of which eleven 
are placed in Kentucky, nearly the same in Alabama, nine in Virginia, six in 
Texas, with smaller investments in Georgia, North Carolina and other States. 
They include iron companies, cotton and woolen mills, flour mills, saw mills, 
machine shops, wood-working, cotton-seed mills, and other operations. 

" It is now estimated that the number of spindles now in operation in the 
South is 950,000, and the capacity for consumption 420,000 bales per annum. 
There is some difference of opinion among mill proprietors as to the precise 
measure of advantage over manufacture in the North, but an average view is five 
dollars per bale, or one cent per pound. This is equal to a tenth of the farm value 
of the cotton. The saving of freights, commissions and other expenses is an 
undoubted advantage, and there is abundant and cheap labor and power ; but the 
great benefaction of manufacturing near the cotton fields is not comparative as a 
matter of profit to proprietors, but is an absolute and priceless boon to the 
laborers, the neighboring farmers and the whole community adjacent to the place 
of manufacture. 

" The manufacture of oil from cotton seed, now so active and progressive, is 
the utilization of a product formerly useless except as a fertilizer. A crop of six 
million bales produces three million tons of seed, or twice the weight of the lint 

* 1884. 



INTROBUCTIOJS/. 57 

saved, capable of yielding products worth more thau a third of the value of the 
fibre itself. Less than a fourth of it is yet utilized, though the proportion is 
rapidly increasing. Here is a product that has been practically thrown away 
which is worth more in its manufactured state than all the barley, rye and buck- 
wheat grown in the United States. Yet this waste of an actual product is only a 
mild suggestion of the immense wealth that has failed to materialize by neglect ot 
the rich natural resources of this region. , 

" It is useless to deplore the past. It is the present that calls for action, ana 
the future that promises its rewards. The land is there, much of it in original 
fertility; there is more labor than at any former day; and the visible evidences ot 
wealth, the improvement and construction which represent accumulated labor, 
are more numerous and valuable, by far, than at any previous date. It is believed 
that an era of industrial progress and great prosperity is now opening. 

To the writer, no aspect of Southern progress is so marked and cheering as 
the hopeful, erect, self-assertive industrial spirit of the South. No longer is she 
supine, inert, self-mistrustful, with head bowed down. Hope elevates and joy 
brightens her face, and on her brow^ sits courage plumed. Time was when the 
South had almost no courage to undertake manufacturing. The few cotton mills 
could not sell their goods to the Southern trade direct, but had to send them to 
Northern salesmen, who sold them to the merchants within the shadow of the 
mill where they were made. The South thought her manufactures were next to 
worthless. She must need have New England goods. But this has passed away 
now. She believes in her capacity to do. It is not the rash and presumptuous 
confidence of unreflecting imbecility or inexperienced immaturity; it is a courage 
based on results. The South, in some regards, has confidence, experience and the 
advantages of situation. Her aggressive and experimental spirit will carry her 
into new fields of endeavor, where there are many opportunities for conquest. 



MARYLAND. 



Maryland has for its northern bonndar}^ the State of Pennsylvania, while on 

the east are Delaware and the Atlantic Ocean, and on the south and west Virginia 

and AVest Virginia. It is separated from Virginia by the Potomac River. The 

Cliesapeake Bay, a magnificent body of water about 200 miles in length, divides 

the State into two parts, known as the Eastern and "Western Shores. The State 

lies between 38° and 39° 43' north latitude, and longitude 75° 3' and 79° 32' west. 

As shown by the census of 1880, the land surface of the State included an area of 

9,860 square miles. The population was 934,943—724,693 whites and 210,230 

colored; native 852,137 and foreign 82,806. The assessed value of real estate was 

$368,442,913, and of personal property $128,864,762. There were 40,517 farms 

and 3,342,700 acres of improved land. The value of farms, including fences and 

buildings, was $165,503,341 ; the value of farm miplements was $5,788,197, of live 

stock $15,865,728, and the value of all farm products consumed on the farm or 

sold w^as $28,839,281. 

SOIL AND TOPOGRAPHY. 

Maryland presents a great diversity of surface and soil. The tidewater 
section of the State is mostly level, ranging in elevation from sea level to 100 
feet, the surface gradually rising towards the north and west. Western Maryland 
is high and uudulating, becoming more rolling and hilly as you approach the 
Blue Ridge Mountains, which cross the northwestern portion of the State. The 
extreme western counties, Garrett and Alleghany, which are crossed by chains of 
the Alleghany Mountains, are wild and rugged, presenting the general character- 
istics of mountainous countries everywhere. Much of their area is covered with 
original forests and underlaid with coal and iron ore. In this section there are 
wide valleys possessing the most fertile soil in the highest state of cultivation. In 
fact, "Western Maryland, notably "Washington and Frederick Counties, can boast 
of some of the most highly improved and productive farms in the country. The 
Middletown Valley and that of the Monocacy, in Frederick Count}^, are noted for 
their wealth and their magnificent farms, which are cultivated on the most 
approved principles of agriculture. The soil of this portion of the State is 
mostly a rich loam underlaid with limestone. There are also granitic and slaty 
soils. The rolling character of the land and the numberless intersecting streams 
afford good drainage. The central part of the State, including Carroll, Howard 
and Montgomery Counties, and most of Baltimore and Harford, is for the most 
part slightly rolling, and in some sections hilly. The soil is variable, but on the 
whole is very productive and capable of high improvement. There is some lime- 
stone land of very great fertility. As a rule, the farms are in a fine state of 
cultivation, and more attention is given to improved methods of culture than in 
the States farther south. 

The lower counties of the State — Anne Arundel, Prince George, Charles, St. 
Mary's and Calvert — form a peninsula lying between the Chesapeake Bay and the 
Potomac River. They present a variety of surface — level, gently undulating and 



MARYLAND. 59 

hilly. The soils are for the most part a clay and sand loam. In some parts there 
are dark, stiff soils, very productive. The lands of this section were originally 
very rich, but have been depleted by excessive cultivation, without proper atten- 
tion to their needs. Though, to some extent, impoverished, they are readily 
susceptible of resuscitation, and under proper care and management, with the 
judicious use of nourishing manures, they may be restored to their former 
condition. 

The Eastern Shore of Maryland is that portion of the State east of the 
Chesapeake Bay. and includes the counties of Cecil, Kent, Queen Anne's, Caro- 
line, Talbot, Dorchester, Somerset, Wicomico and Worcester, covering an area of 
about 2,700 square miles. In the north it is somewhat broken and hilly, but 
through the central and southern portions it is almost entirely level. It is inter- 
sected by many navigable salt-water rivers and creeks. The soil varies from light 
sandy to rich black meadow lands, the sandy having mostly a clay subsoil. The 
land is entirely free from stones, and is remarkably easy of cultivation and suscep- 
tible of high improvement. 

CLIMATE. 

The climate of ]\Iaryland varies with the topography. On the Eastern Shore, 
placed between the Atlantic Ocean and the Chesapeake Bay, the heat of summer 
is ver)'' greatly moditied by the sea breezes, while in the western and northern 
sections the same result is produced by the elevation. In the western part of the 
State the winters are somewhat severe, but in the lower counties are milder and 
the cold weather less protracted. The usual range of the thermometer in summer 
is from 80 to 90, though it sometimes goes several degrees higher for a few daj^s. 
In winter the mercurj^ rarely gets lower than 10° above zero. According to the 
temperature maps of the census report, the mean temperature for July is 75° to 
86°, except in the extreme northwestern section, where it is 70° to 75°; the mean 
temperature for January is 35° to 40° in the lower counties of the Eastern and 
Western Shores, 30° to 35° in the central part of the State, and 25° to 30° in the 
west. The average annual rainfall ranges from 38 inches in the western counties 
to 45 inches in the tidewater section. 

PRODUCTIONS. 

This State produces as great a variety of cereals, vegetables and fruits almost 
as any State in the Unioii. Agriculture has reached a very high state in Mary- 
land, and this important interest has flourished and prospered even during the 
long depression which has been so seriously felt by the wlieat producers of the 
West. In this State a wise agricultural system prevails in the wide diversification 
of crops. Wheat, corn, oats, rye, buckwheat, hay and all the usual products of 
the farm are cultivated. Of the cereals, wheat probably receives more attention 
than any other. It is extensively cultivated in Western Maryland, the rich valleys 
producing heavy yields. It is also a very prominent crop in some parts of the 
Eastern Shore. Maiyland produced in 1884 8,200,000 bushels of wheat, 1,980,000 
bushels of oats and 15,237,000 bushels of corn. 

Tobacco is a leading crop in the lower counties and in parts of Western 
Maryland. The census report on the culture of tobacco says: 

"A marked characteristic of Maryland tobacco is its mildness. There are 
some fine Bay, Burley and cigar-leaf tobaccos raised in Maryland. The soils are 
capable of producing a much larger proportion of the finer types than has gener- 
ally been grown, requiring, of course, a change of varieties and appropriate 
management. Nearly all the tobacco grown in Maryland is produced in the 
counties of Anne Arundel, Calvert, Carroll, Charles, Frederick, Howard, Mont- 
gomery, Prince George's and St. Mary's." 



60 MARYLAND. 

Truck farmiug is an interest of very great proportions, and certain sections 
of the State are among tlie most noted areas in the country for the production of 
vegetables and fruits. The business of market gardening is carried on around 
Washington and Baltimore as in the neighborhood of other large cities, and on 
an extensive scale in Anne Arundel County and lower Eastern Shore. The soil 
of the lower counties of the Eastern Shore is peculiarly suited to trucking ; light, 
easily worked, responding readily to fertilizers, the yields of cabbages, potatoes, 
peas, tomatoes, beans, asparagus, melons, berries, etc., are very large. From 
Worcester and Wicomico Counties thousands of crates of strawberries are 
annually shipped by railroad and by steam and sail-boats. The demand for 
fruits and vegetables raised in Maryland is not limited to the supply needed for 
immediate consumption. Enormous quantities are also required by the large 
number of canning factories in Baltimore and throughout the State. 

Maryland produces a wide range of fruits in great abundance. The raising 
of peaches is one of the most important industries in the State. The soil and 
climate of the Eastern Shore are peculiarly adapted to this fruit, and it has 
become a source of enormous revenue to that section, one of the most noted 
peach districts in the world. The famous peach orchards of Maryland occupy 
there as important a position relatively as orange groves in Florida. The profits 
of the business are very large, and fortunes have been made in it. During the 
season thousands of car loads and vessel and steamer loads are shipped to Balti- 
more, Philadelphia, New York and other markets. Large quantities are also 
absorbed by the local canneries. 

DAIRYING AND STOCK RAISING. 

The dairying interest is one of great extent, and along the lines of railroads 
leading into Baltimore and Washington, almost every fjirmer makes this a part^of 
his business. The fine grazing lands of Western Maryland support some splendid 
herds of cattle, and much attention is given to stock raising, both for market and 
for dairying purposes. Some of the leading farmers in the State give much 
attention to raising the finest breeds of live stock, an industry conducted on a 
large scale also by a large number of wealthy Baltimoreans, whose stock farms 
are among the most noted in the country. There is probably no State in the 
Union which can show finer herds of the highest grades of cattle than Maryland. 

MINERAL RESOURCES. 

Mar^dand is rich in mineral resources, the largest source of wealth in this 
line being the inexhaustible veins of bituminous and semi-bituminous coal in the 
northwestern part of the State. Coal mining was commenced in Alleghany 
County in 184'^, and has been vigorously prosecuted ever since. There are now 
over 20 companies engaged in mining in that county, the coal reaching the sea- 
board by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, 
the latter connecting Cumberland, Md., and Georgetown and Washington, D, C. 
Nearly 2,500,000 tons have been shipped from that county in one year. 

Iron ore of a superior quality abounds in a large part of the State. 

Marble of the finest quality for building purposes is very abundant in some 
sections. Maryland marble, quarried at Cockeysville, in Baltimore County, was 
used in the erection of about four-fifths of the Washington Monument lately 
completed at Washington, D. C. The same marble is used largely in public 
buildings in Baltimore and Washington. 

Granite is found in unlimited quantities. 

The limestone beds in the central part of the State yield large supplies of 
limestone for building and agricultural purposes. 



MARYLAND. 61 

Copper, gold, marl and other minerals are found to some extent in certain 
sections. 

MANUFACTURING. 

The manufacturing interests of Maryland are varied in character and of wide 
extent. There is probably no State in the Union having better advantages for 
many lines of manufacturing than Maryland, and in Baltimore are concentrated 
advantages which, if properly appreciated, would make that city one of the most 
important seats of industrial activity in the country . It has cheap laud, cheap 
living, cheap Abater, cheap raw material, low taxes and unsurpassed transportation 
facilities by land and water. The report of the census for 1880 places the amount 
of capital invested in manufactures in Maryland at |58,742,384, the number of 
establishments being 6,787. The amount of wages paid was $18,904,965; the 
materials used were valued at $66,937,846, and the aggregate value of the products 
was $106,780,563. The great bulk of this interest is centered in and around Balti- 
more — the value of the products of manufactures in that city being $78,417,304, 
and in Baltimore County $11,147,294, or a total for the two of over $89,500,000 
out of an aggregate for the whole State of $106,780,563. The leading industries, 
with the amount of capital Invested and the value of products produced, were in 
1880: 

NO. OF VALUE OF 

INDUSTRIES. BSTABLISHMENTS. CAPITAL, PRODUCTS. 

Boots and Shoes 34 $ 590,600 $2,212,963 

Bakery Products 341 864,022 2,275,227 

Clothing, men's 220 3>894,943 9,579,066 

Cotton Goods 20 4,605,816 4,688,714 

Fertilizers 48 4,271,870 5,770,198 

Flouring and Grist Mill Products 546 3,145,520 7,954,004 

Foundry and Machine Shop Products 91 2,684,358 4,454,317 

Fruits and Vegetables, canned and preserved. 114 2,412,692 6,245,297 

Furniture 131 863,727 1,663,143 

Iron and Steel 23 4,962,125 4,470,050 

Lard, refined 2 240,000 1,544,000 

Leather, tanned. 63 802,343 1,468,591 

Liquors, distilled 16 715,500 1,202,303 

Liquors, malt 53 2,145,590 1,820,303 

Lumber, sawed 369 1,237,694 i>8i3,332 

Marble and Stone Work 59 673,926 i ,007,893 

Slaughtering and Meat Packing 9 865,000 3>377f6o5 

Tinware, &c 226 1,179,267 3)564,994 

Tobacco and SnufF 10 602,600 1,531,424 

Tobacco, cigars 369 623,607 1,730,604 

The manufacture of pig iron has for many years been a leading industry in 
Maryland, the total capacity of all the furnaces now in the State, both in and out 
of blast, being a little over 87,000 tons a year. The manufacture of cotton goods 
is a very important industry in this State, and in the past yielded large protits, 
but, in sympathy with all other manufactures, this business has suffered consider- 
able depression lately. It is estimated that over 75 per cent, of all the cotton 
duck made in the United States is produced in Woodberry, a manufacturing town 
near Baltimore, in which are located extensive cotton mills and machine shops. 
The flour milling interests of Maryland are of considerable extent. This industry 
was first started in 1874-76 by the Ellicotts, who built a mill at what is now Elli- 
cott City, and called it the Patapsco Mill. From this have grown the three 
Patapsco Flour Mills now in operation in that State. The winter wheat raised in 
Maryland and the adjoining States is admitted to be much superior in nutriment 
to the Northwestern spring wheat, and this has had much to do with the ])opu- 
larity of Maryland-made flour. The canning of fruits and vegetables, which in 
summer is carried on in the same establishments that in winter are used for 
packing-houses, is one of the most important industries in the State. The value 
of the products of these factories in 1880 (not including oyster canning) was 
$6,245,297, but since then tliere has been a large increase in the business. It is 
this industry mainly that makes the raising of fruits and certain kinds of vege- 



63 MARYLAND. 

tables so profitable in Maiylaud, as it affords a ready home market for these 
products. Maryland farmers are thus enabled to devote their attention mainly to 
the fruit and "trucking" business in sections suitable for that industry, as they 
can always be sure of finding a sale, and that, too, without the expense of heavy 
freights. Baltimore is the most important center of th^fruit canning trade in the 
United States, and the great success that she has scored in this industry should 
stimulate the other Southern States that have excellent natural advantages for 
the business to engage in fruit and vegetable canning. 

As already stated, tlie total value of the products of manufactures in 1880 
was $78,417,304. To show how large the increase in manufactures 'since then has 
been, it may be well to give some statistics compiled by the Merchants and Manu- 
facturers' Association of Baltimore as to the industries of the city in 1884. In this 
report the value of the products of Baltimore's manufactures is given as follows: 

Agricultural Implements $ 550,000 Looking-glass and Picture Frames.. 610,590 

Boots and Shoes 2,655,560 Millers 3,255,000 

Brick and Tile 1,084,921 Marble and Stone Works 1,891,340 

Bread and Steam Bakeries 1,550,000 Malsters and Brewers 2,313,250 

Clothiers 12,002,000 Paints and Oils 4,205,500 

Carriage, Coach and Wagon 905,650 Pianos, Organs, &c 1,400,000 

Canning and Fishing 16,424,546 Potteries, stone and earthenware. . . 554,000 

Cotton Manufactures 6,302,500 Printing, Lithographing and Pub- 
Candy, Confections and Fruit 3>ioi.334 lishing 2,157,134 

Distillers 2,000,000 Soap and Candles 760,000 

Drugs, Chemicals and Patent Medi- Saddlery, Harness and Whips 1,018,207 

cines 10,519,618 Sashes, Doors and Blinds 1,136,250 

Fertilizers 6,720,000 Shirts, Underwear and Overalls ... . 3,540,000 

Furniture 3,246,000 Shot 609,375 

Glass 1,683,200 Tin, Copper and Sheet Iron 9,492,065 

Hardware 575,000 Tobacco Manufactures 5,868,750 

Hair 2,715,320 \Voolens 651,079 

Iron, Steel, Bell, Brass and Ma- 

chinery 16,276,305 Total ^127,774, 604 

It will be seen that, according to these figures, the value of the manufactures 
of Baltimore in 1884 exceeded by $31,000,000 the value for the whole State in 1880. 

OYSTERS. 

Maryland is the greatest oyster producing State in the Union, though there is 
danger of her temporarily losing this position, as the oyster beds have been so 
much overworked that there is now a growing scarcity of oysters as compared 
with former years. This may, however, be remedied by more attention being 
given to the planting of oysters. The field for profitable employment in this 
direction is practically unlimited. The Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries can 
easily support a dozen men for every one now employed, when the importance 
and practicability of oyster cultivation are fully appreciated, and the profits to 
those engaged in the business will be larger and more certain than at present. 
The demand for oysters is yearly increasing, and there is no danger or even 
possibility that the supply will ever exceed the wants of the country. While the 
gathering of oysters is so far mainly confined to the native population, except the 
crews of the dredging boats, which are composed of all nationalities, quite a 
number of New England people have embarked in the planting of oysters in the 
Chesapeake Bay, and, so far as can be learned, with unvarying success. Until 
lately the State laws have not been calculated to encourage oyster farming, but 
there is now a disposition on the part of the State officials to do everything in 
their power to develop an industry that is of such vital importance to the welfare 
of the State. The statistics of the Maryland oyster business were compiled in 
1880 for the United States Census by Mr. R. H. Edmonds, editor of the Manufac- 
turers' Record, Baltimore, and from his report the following figures are gathered : 
The total number of boats engaged in the oyster trade in that year was 3,275, of 
which 1,825 were canoes averaging about three hands each, while 1,450 were 
larger vessels running in size from 5 to 75 tons, and in value from a thousand 



MARYLAND. 63 

dollars or so up to $8,000 or $10,000. The aggregate for the whole fleet was 
$2,042,500 ; while the number of men employed on these vessels was 13,748, their 
wages and earnings for the oyster season aggregating $2,538,000. The total 
amount of capital invested in all branches of the oyster trade was, in 1880, 
$6,245,876, and the number of hands employed was 24,337. During the same 
year there were 10,600,000 bushels of oysters, valued at about $2,500,000, taken in 
Maryland waters, of which 6,653,000 buslicls were canned or sliipped raw, while 
over 2,000,000 bushels were sent out of the State in the shell, mainly to Northern 
cities. Baltimore is the center of the oyster canning trade, controlling the great 
bulk of the business, but several small cities are beginning to develop a large 
trade in this line. In the whole State there were, in 1880, 98 firms engaged in 
canning oysters, their capital, including the estimated value of the buildings 
which they occupied, being a little over $3,900,000. The number of hands 
employed was 8,600. 

FISH AND GAME. 

The waters of the State abound with the finest food fishes. Rock-fish, 
sheep's-head, trout, tailors, mullet, perch and all the well-known varieties are 
caught in limitless numbers, afibrding a large source of food supply and furnish- 
ing sport to the fisherman. Turtles and terrapin are found in abundance. 
Millions of wild fowl infest the creeks and rivers. Partridges, snipe, rabbits, 
squirrels, etc., are found all over the State. 

TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES. 

Every portion of the State is provided with the means of ready access to 
the best markets. The State is traversed by numerous railroads, bringing every 
section within a short distance of the line of some road. The tidewater districts 
are closely connected with Baltimore by the Chesapeake Bay and the rivers and 
creeks tributary to it, through hundreds of steamboats and sail vessels. 

EDUCATION. 

Maryland has one of the most efficient systems of public schools to be found 
in any State. Every section of the State is supplied with good schools, and 
teachers are specially trained for their duties at the State Normal School in Balti- 
more. There are in different parts of the State, and notably in Baltimore, many 
private schools of a high order. The renowned Johns Hopkins University, which 
has, within the few years it has been in existence, taken rank among the most 
noted institutions of learning in the world, is located in Baltimore. 



VIRGINIA. 



The history of no other State has more to appeal to the imagination and the 
judgment than that of Virginia — a history romantic, heroic and august. What 
shapes trod lier early stage ! No experiences of age dispel the charms of her 
bright romance. No aspiring historian, panting after iconoclasm, can destroy 
these idols of childhood. Smith and Pocahontas will be always real and dear ; 
and the sounds of the names of some of her rivers make melodies in our ears 
now, as they did in young and day-dream days. But if her early history is so dear 
for the charms it gave our childhood, there are eras, in the contemplation of which 
veneration is the fittest mood. Her soil seems hallowed with the ashes of the best 
and bravest of our countrymen. She seems an "eternal camping-ground" for 
fame; and the spirits of her warriors and statesmen crowd their sacred trysting- 
place — a numerous and immortal concourse. There reposes all that mortality 
can claim of one of the most revered of Christian warriors and statesmen- 
Washington. In the soil of Virginia rests the immortal author of the Declaration 
of Independence— Thomas Jefferson. There, too, lies Patrick Henry, one of the 
most kindling and enthralling orators of any time. There is buried Randolph of 
Roanoke, the fierce and fiery tribune, whose "splendid conflagration" illumined 
in his day the most august forum of his country— the United States Senate. But 
who shall call the long roll of heroes in proper tones ? 

Her generous bounty gave to the nation long ago a large area. Lately she 
was dismembered by cutting off from her what is now AVest Virginia ; but she is 
still not only a noble and glorious, but a great State. She is now on a new path 
of progress, and her bowels yearn to endow the State with a vaster wealth in her 
minerals than has ever been drawn from her bosom by agriculture. 

Virginia lies in latitude 36° 33' to 39° 27' north, corresponding to Southern 
Europe, Central Asia, Southern Japan and California. Its longitude is from 75° 
13' to 83° 37' west from Greenwich. On the south it adjoins North Carolina for 
326 miles and Tennessee for 114 miles, making the line of the State from the 
Atlantic west 440 miles; on the west and northwest, Kentucky for 115 and West 
Virginia (by a very irregular line) for 450 miles, form the boundary. Maryland is 
northeast and north, separated by the Potomac River and the Chesapeake Bay for 
205 miles from Virginia, and by a line of 25 miles across the Eastern Shore. East 
and southeast it is bordered by the Atlantic for 125 miles. The boundary lines of 
the State measure about 1,400 miles. On the northwest they are mostly mountain 
ranges ; on the northeast and east, water. The longest line in the State, from the 
Atlantic southwest to Kentucky, is 476 miles; the longest from north to south 
is 192 miles. 

The State has an area of land surface of 40,125 square miles, and a water 
surfiice estimated at 2,325 square miles. The population, according to the census 
of 1880, was 1,512,565— an average of 38 to the square mile. Of this number, 
880,858 were white and 631,616 colored. 



VIRGINIA. 65 

There are six great natural divisions of tbe territory of Virginia — belts of 
country extending across the State from northeast to southwest, as a general 
direction, nearly parallel to each other, and corresponding to the trend of the 
Atlantic coast on the east, and of the ranges of the Apalachian system of moun- 
tains on the northwest. These grand divisions are, taken in the order of succes- 
sion from the ocean northwest across the State: 1st. The Tidewater Country; 
2d. Middle Virginia ; 3d. The Piedmont Section; 4th. The Blue Ridge Country; 
5th. The Great Valley of Virginia ; 6th. The Apalachian Country. These divi- 
sions not only succeed each other geographically, but they occupy different levels 
above the sea, rising to the west like a grand stairway. They differ geologically 
also ; therefore they have differences of climate, soil, productions, &c., and require 
a separate consideration in every respect in a description of the State. 

Tidewater Virginia is the eastern and southeastern part of the State that on 
the south borders North Carolina 104 miles; on the east has an air-line border of 
120 miles along the Atlantic; on the west is bounded by 150 miles of the irregular 
outline of the Middle Country— (this would be 164 miles if it took in the mere 
edge of Tidewater along the Potomac up to Georgetown.) The shore line of the 
Potomac River and the Chesapeake Bay for 140 miles, and a line of 25 miles across 
the Eastern Shore, separate it from Maryland on the north. The wiiole forms an 
irregular quadrilateral, averaging 114 miles in length from north to south, and 90 
in width from east to west, making an area of some 11,000 square miles. 

The latitude is from 36° 33' to 38° 54' north, corresponding to that of the 
countries bordering on the northern shores of the Mediterranean in Europe, and 
to the central belt of States— Kentucky, Missouri, California, etc.— in the United 
States. The longitude is from 75° 13' to 77° 30' west from Greenwich— that of 
Maryland, Central Pennsylvania and New York, in the United States, and 
Ontario, in Canada, on the north, and of North Carolina, the Bahamas, Cuba, 
&c., on the south. 

This is emphatically a tidewater country, since every portion of it is pene- 
trated by the tidal waters of Chesapeake Bay and its tributary rivers, creeks, 
bays, inlets, &c., which cover some 2,300 square miles of surface, and give nearly 
1,500 miles of tidal shore line. The united waters of nearly all this section, with 
those that drain 40,000 more square miles of country, or the drainage of 50,000 
square miles, (an area equal to that of England.) flow out through the channel, 12 
miles wide, between Capes Charles and Henry— the " Virginia Capes"— into the 
Virginian sea of Captain John Smith, along the eastern border of which, 50 or 60 
miles from the land, runs the ever-flowing Gulf Stream. 

Tidewater is naturally divided into nine j)rincipal peninsulas, and these are 
sub-divided into a great number of smaller ones, giving a wealth of outline not 
even surpassed by the famous Morea of Greece; in truth, there are here dozens of 
Moreas. These peninsulas are, politically, each divided into counties, (thirty in 
all,) most of them laid out and named when this, the first settled portion of 
English-speaking America, w^as a British colonv, and the names given them were 
those of the counties or worthies of England, the " IMother Country" at the time. 

The first peninsula, taking them from the north to the south, is the Northern 
Neck, 75 miles long and from 6 to 20 wide, extending southeast from the Middle 
Country to the bay, between the Potomac and Rappahannock. Its counties are 
King George, Westmoreland, Richmond, Northumberland and Lancaster. This 
peninsula is almost surrounded by navigable waters. 

The second, or Middlesex Peninsula, extends southeast for 60 miles, with a 
breadth of from 3 to 10, between the Rappahannock and the Piankitank Rivers, 
including Essex and Middlesex Counties. The Rappahannock is navigable all 



66 VIRGINIA. 

along one side, and the Piankitank nearly half of the other. This is one of the 
short peninsulas succeeding a long one. 

The third, or Gloucester Peninsula, reaches southeast from the Middle 
Country, between the Piankitank and the York and its extension, the Mattapony, 
some 70 miles to the bay, where it is " forked " by the Mobjack Bay. Its width is 
from 6 to 18 miles. It includes King & Queen, Mathews and Gloucester Counties. 

The fourth, the King William or Pamunkey Peninsula, a short one, extends 
60 miles southeast, between the Mattapony and the Pamunkey, (the streams that 
form the York.) This is from 3 to 14 miles wide, and includes the counties of 
Caroline and King AVilliam, although the former extends across the neck of the 
third peninsula to the Rappahannock. 

The fifth, a long one, is known as "The Peninsula," by way of eminence, as 
it was the first settled; and Williamsburg, its chief town, was the colonial capital 
of Virginia. This stretches 100 miles to the southeast, with a width of from 5 to 
15 miles, between the Pamunkey and its extension, the York, on the north, and 
the Chickahominy and the continuing James on the south. This large jieninsula 
extends from the Middle Country to the bay, and looks out between " The Capes." 
Its counties are Hanover, New Kent, James City, York, Warwick and Elizabeth 
City. 

The sixth, the short, Richmond or Chickahominy Peninsula, between the 
Chickahominy and the James, is 50 miles long and from 5 to 15 wide, divided into 
Henrico and Charles City Counties. The former contains Richmond, the capital 
of Virginia. 

The seventh, or Southside Peninsula, embraces all the country south of the 
James, and between it and the Nansemond River and the North Carolina Ime. 
This is the last peninsula trending to the southeast, which it does for 64 miles, 
with a width of from 35 to 40. Its counties are Prince George, Surry, Sussex, 
Southampton, Isle of Wight and Nansemond. 

The eighth is the Norfolk Peninsula, including the counties of Norfolk and 
Princess Anne — the territory between the Nansemond River, Hampton Roads, 
Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic — some 30 by 35 miles in extent, protruding 
northward. 

The ninth, the Eastern Shore, is the peninsula extending to the south between 
Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic, divided between the large counties of Accomac 
and Northampton. 

The last two are the Upper Tertiary Plain, raised but from 20 to 30 feet above 
the sea level, composed of north and south-lying belts of smaller peninsulas and 
islands, with the "pocoson" ends of the other peninsulas, forming the first step 
of the ascending stairway or terraces of Virginia to the westward. The shifting 
sands of its ocean shore are often elevated into dunes more than 100 feet high. 

The seven other peninsulas, with all their masses extended southeast and 
northwest, rise up as the second and third steps. The second step, corresponding 
in the main to the middle tertiary formation, attains an elevation of from 80 to 
120 feet above the sea. This is the widest tidewater terrace, gashed and broken 
by the broad estuaries that flow through it. The third step has its eastern edge 
just west of the meridian of 77°, and attains an elevation of from 90 to 150 feet 
above the sea, occupying the belt of lower tertiary country. Beyond this rises 
the fourth step, the border of granite and sandstone elevated from 150 to 200 feet 
above the sea, forming the rocky barrier over which the waters of the Middle or 
"upper country" fall, and up to which the tides of the "low country" come, 
making the "head of tide" for the Atlantic slope, and furnishing sites for manu- 
facturing and commercial cities, where water-power for manufacturing and tide 
power for commerce are found side by side. Here, half in Tidewater and half in 



L 



VIRGINIA. 67 

Middle, on the fourth step and on the level of the first, on the hills and below 
them, are Petersburg, Richmond, Fredericksburg and Alexandria. 

The Tidewater Plain, then, has an average width of nearly 100 miles, and 
rises in three successive terraces to an elevation of about 150 feet. It is a fine, 
rolling, low country, with a surface diversified by salt-water marshes and meadows, 
river bottoms, plains, upland, slopes and ridges, with a moderate proportion of 
" pocoson " or swamp country. 

The Middle Country extends westward from the "head of tide" to the foot 
of the low, broken ranges that, under the names of Catocton, Bull Run, Yew, 
Clark's, Southwest, Carter's, Green, Findlay's, Buffalo, Chandler's, Smith's, &c., 
mountains and hills, extend across the State southwest, from the Potomac, near 
the northern corner of Fairfax County, to the Xorth Carolina line, near the 
southw^est corner of Pittsylvania, forming the eastern outliers of the Apalachian 
system, and that may with propriety be called the Atlantic coast range. 

The general form of this section is that of a large right-angled triangle, its 
base resting on the North Carolina line for 120 miles ; its perpendicular, a line 174 
miles long, extending from the Carolina line to the Potomac, just east of and 
parallel to the meridian of 77° 30' west, is the right line along the waving border 
of Tidewater which lies east; the hypothenuse is the 216 miles along the Coast 
Range, before mentioned, the border of Piedmont, on the northwest— the area of 
the whole, including the irregular outline, being some 12,470 square miles. 

The latitude of this section is from 36° 33' to 39° ; the longitude 70° to 79° 40' 
west. So its general situation and relations are nearly similar to those of Tide- 
water. 

The Middle Countiy is a great, moderately undulating plain, from 25 to 100 
miles wide, rising to the northwest from an elevation of 150 to 200 feet above tide, 
at the rocky rim of its eastern margin, to from 300 to 500 along its northwestern. 
In general appearance this is more like a plain than any other portion of the State. 
The principal streams, as a rule, cross it at right angles ; so it is a succession of 
ridges and valleys running southeast and northwest, the valleys often narrow and 
deep, but the ridges generally not very prominent. The appearance of much of 
this country is somewhat monotonous, having many dark evergreen trees in its 
forests. It needs a denser population to enliven it. To many portions of the 
Middle Country the mountain ranges to the west, of the deepest blue, form an 
agreeable and distant boundary to the otherwise sober landscape. There are a 
feAV prominences like Willis', Slate River and White Oak Mountains farther east, 
only prominent because in a champaign country. 

There can be but little natural grouping of the political divisions of the 
Middle Country, since there are but few great natural landmarks, unless James 
River, which crosses this section at right angles nearly midway, be considered as 
one, and the tw^enty-tive counties of Middle Virginia be grouped as northside and 
southside ones. Many of these counties were laid out, named and settled in 
colonial times also, and some of the oldest settled portions of the State are here. 

The northside counties are Fairfox, Alexandria, Prince William and Stafl'ord, 
bordering on the Potomac ; Spotsylvania between the Rappahannock and North 
Anna, Louisa on the south of the North Anna (portions of Caroline, Hanover and 
Henrico properly belong here,) Fluvanna and Goochland on the James— making 8 

northside counties. 

The seventeen southside counties are Buckingham, Cumberland, Powhatan 
and Chesterfield, between the James and Appomattox rivers ; Appomattox, on the 
James, Prince Edward, Amelia and Dinwiddie, south of the Appomattox, and the 
two latter between it and the Nottoway, (Nottoway is north of the river of that 
name ;) Campbell between the James and Staunton (or Roanoke) rivers, Charlotte 



68 VntOINIA. 

north of the Roanoke, Lunenburg between the Nottoway and Meherrin, Bruns- 
wick and Greensville extending from the Nottoway across the Meherrin to the 
North Carolina line, (a portion of the latter county is in Tidewater;) Pittsylvania 
and Halifax reach from Staunton across the Banister and the Dan to the North 
Carolina line, and Mecklenburg extends from the Meherrin across the Roanoke to 
the same boundary. 

Portions of Fairfax, Prince AVilliam, Stafford, Spotsylvania, Caroline, Fau- 
quier, Culpeper, Hanover, Henrico, Goochland, Powhatan, Chesterfield, Bucking- 
ham, Cumberland, Prince Edward, Campbell and Pittsylvania, which are on the 
triassic, or new red sandstone formation, differ considerably in appearance from 
the rest of the Middle Country w^hich is on the eozoic, or granite, gneiss, &c., rocks. 

This section is essentially the same as the rest of the eozoic belt that extends 
from the Alabama River to the St. Lawrence, embracing large portions of the best 
sections of Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland, Penn- 
sylvania, New York and all the New England States. The cities of Atlanta, 
Raleigh, Petersburg, Richmond, Fredericksburg, Alexandria, Washington, Balti- 
more, Philadelphia, New York, New Haven, &c., are situated, in whole or in part, 
on these rocks. 

Piedmont Virginia is the long belt of country stretching for 244 miles from 
the banks of the Potomac and the Maryland line southwest, along the eastern base 
of the Blue Ridge Mountains, and between them and the Coast Range, to the 
banks of the Dan at the North Carolina line ; it varies in width from 20 to 30 
miles, averaging about 25 ; its approximate area is 6,680 square miles. 

Its latitude corresponds with that of the State 30° 33' to 39° 27' north; its 
longitude is from 77° 20' to 80° 50' west. 

This Piedmont Country is the fifth step of the great stairway ascending to 
the west ; its eastern edge, along Middle Virginia, is from 300 to 500 feet above 
the sea ; then come the broken ranges of the Coast Mountains, rising as detached 
or connected knobs, in lines or groups, from 100 to 600 feet higher. These are 
succeeded by the numberless valleys, of all imaginable forms, some long, straight 
and wide; others narrow and widening ; others again oval and almost enclosed, 
locally known as " Coves," that extend across to and far into the Blue Ridge, the 
spurs of which often reach out southw^ardly for miles, ramifying in all directions. 
Portions of Piedmont form widely extended plains. The land west of the coast 
ranges is generally from 300 to 500 feet above the sea, and rises to the west, until 
at the foot of the Blue Ridge it attains an elevation of from 600 to 1,200 feet. 
The Blue Ridge rises to from 2,000 to 4,000 feet above the sea ; at one point near 
the Tennessee line, it reaches a height of 5,530 feet ; its general elevation is about 
2,500, but its outline is very irregular. 

Numerous streams have their origin in the heads of the gorges of the Blue 
Ridge, and most of them then flow across Piedmont to the southeast until near its 
eastern border, where they unite and form one that runs for a considerable distance 
along and parallel to the Coast Mountains, and takes the name of some of the well 
known rivers that cross Middle and even Tidewater Virginia, like the Roanoke or 
Staunton, and the James. Some of these rivers break through the Blue Ridge 
from the Valley, making water gaps in that formidable mountain barrier, as the 
Potomac, the James and the Roanoke ; but they all follow the rule above given in 
their way across this section. 

This is a genuine " Piedmont " country — one in which the mountains present 
themselves in their grand as well as in their diminutive forms— gradually sinking 
down into the plains, giving great diversity and picturesqueness to the landscape, 
with its wealth of forms of relief as varied as those of outline in Tidewater. Few 
countries surpass this in beauty of scenery and choice of prospect, so it has 



VIRGINIA. 69 

always been a favorite section with men of refinement in which to fix their homes. 
Its population is 31 to the square mile, giving some 21 acres for each. 

The political divisions of Piedmont are fourteen. Some of its counties have 
long been settled, and are highly improved. There are no natural groupings pos- 
sible for these counties; they all, with three exceptions, run from the summit of 
the Blue Ridge across this belt of country. Taking them from the Potomac, the 
counties are: Loudoun, watered mostly by Goose and Catoctin Creeks and the 
Potomac; Fauquier, drained by the Rappahannock waters, to which river it 
extends; Rappahannock and Culpeper, on the southwest side of the same stream, 
Culpeper reaching to the Rapid Anne, as does also Madison; Greene and Orange, 
southwest of the Rapid Anne ; Albemarle, drained by the Rivauna and Hardware 
branches of James, and reaching to the James; Nelson and Amherst, bounded by 
the Blue Ridge and the James, Amherst by that river, both southeast and south- 
west; Bedford and Franklin, southwest of the James, and drained chiefly by 
waters of the Roanoke or Staunton ; Patrick and Henry, next the North Carolina 
line, furnishing many branches to the Dan. Every portion of this section is 
penetrated by watercourses and is well supplied with imfailing, bright, pure 
water, from springs and mountain rivulets. 

The Blue Ridge Section, for two-thirds of its length of 310 miles, is 
embraced in the Valley and Piedmont counties that have their common lines upon 
its watershed; it is only the southwestern portion of it, where it expands into a 
plateau, with an area of some 1,230 square miles, that forms a separate political 
division ; still the whole range and its numerous spurs, parallel ridges, detached 
knobs and foot hills, varying in width from 3 to 20 miles, embracing nearly 2,500 
square miles of territory, is a distinct region, not only in appearance but in all 
essential particulars. The river, in the gorge where the Potomac breaks through 
the Blue Ridge, is 242 feet above tide. The Blue Ridge there attains an elevation 
of 1,460 feet. Mt. Marshall, near and south of Front Roj-al, is 3,369 feet high; 
the notch, Rockfish Gap, at the Chesapeake and Ohio. Railroad, is 1,996 feet, and 
James River, where it passes through the Ridge, is 706 feet above tide, or more 
than twice as high as the Potomac at its passage. The Peaks of Otter, in Bedford 
County, are 3,993 feet, and the Balsam Mountain, in Grayson, is 5,700 feet, and in 
North Carolina this range is nearly 7,000 feet above the sea level. These figures 
show that this range increases in elevation as we go southwest, and every portion 
of the country near rises in the same manner. At a little distance this range is 
generally of a deep blue color. The whole mountain range may be characterized 
as a series of swelling domes, connected by long ridges meeting between the high 
points in gaps or notches, and sending out long spurs in all directions from the 
general range, but more especially on the eastern side, these in turn sending out 
other spurs giving a great development of surface and variety of exposure. 

The political divisions upon the plateau of the Blue Ridge are the counties of 
Floyd, Carroll and Grayson, all watered by the Kanawha, or New River, and its 
branches, a tributary of the Ohio, except the little valley in the southwest corner 
of Grayson, which sends its waters to the Tennessee. The population of this 
romantic section is 23 to the square mile. 

The Great Valley of Virginia is the belt of limestone land west of the Blue 
Ridge, and between it and the numerous interrupted ranges of mountains, with 
various local names, that run parallel to it on the west at an average distance of 
some twenty miles, that collectively are called the Kitatinny or North Mountains. 
This valley extends in West Virginia and Virginia for more than 330 miles from 
the Potomac to the Tennessee line, and 305 miles of tliis splendid country are 
within the limits of Virginia. The county lines generally extend from the top of 
the Blue Ridge to the top of the second or third mountain range beyond the 



70 VIRGINIA. 

Valley proper, so that the political Valley is somewhat larger than the natural 
one, which has an area of about 6,000 square miles, while the former has 7,550, 
and a population of twenty-six to the square mile. The latitude of the Valley is 
from 36° 35' N. to 39° 26'; its longitude is from 77° 50' to 80° 16' W. 

"While this is one continuous valley, clearly defined by its bounding moun- 
tains, it is not the valley of one river, or of one system of rivers, but of five ; so 
that it has four water-sheds and four river troughs in its length, along the Valley 
from the Potomac to tlie Tennessee line. These valleys and tlieir length in the 
Great Valley are, from the northeast — 

ist. The Shenandoah Valley 136 miles. 

2d, The James River Valley 50 " 

3d. The Roanoke River Valley 38 " 

4th. The Kanawha or New River Valley 54 " 

5th. The Valley of the Holston or Tennessee 52 " 

330 miles. 

As a whole the Valley rises to the southwest, being 242 feet above the tide 
where the Shenandoah enters the Potomac and the united rivers break through 
the Blue Ridge at Harper's Ferry, and 1,687 feet where the waters of the Holston 
leave the State and pass into Tennessee. The entire Valley appears then as a 
series of ascending and descending planes, sloping to the northeast or tlie south- 
vrest. That of the Shenandoah rises from 242 to 1,863 feet along the line of its 
main stream, in 136 miles, looking northeast ; those of the James slope both ways, 
from the Shenandoah summit to the southwest, and from the Roanoke summit to 
the northeast, and so on. This arrangement gives this seventh great step a 
variety of elevations above the sea from 242 to 2,594 feet, or even to 3,000, in a 
great enclosed valle}', sub-divided into very many minor valleys, giving " facings" 
in all directions ; for the whole Valley has a very decided southeastern inclination, 
to be considered in this connection, its western side being from 500 to 1,000 ffeet 
in surface elevation above its eastern, presenting its mass to the sun, giving its 
streams a tendency to flow across it toward the east, as the result of its combined 
slopes, and making the main drainage way hug the western base of the Blue 
Ridge. A moment's reflection will show that this is a well watered country, 
having a wealth of water-power and drainage and irrigation resources almost 
beyond estimate. 

The aspect of this region is exceedingly pleasant. The great width of the 
Valley ; the singular coloring, and wavy, but bold outline of the Blue Ridge ; the 
long, uniform lines of the Kitatinny Mountains, and the high knobs that rise up 
behind them in the distance; the detached ranges that often extend for many 
miles in the midst of the Valley like huge lines of fortification — all these for the 
outline, filled up with park-like forests, well cultivated farms, well built towns, 
and threaded by bright and abounding rivers, make this a charming and inviting 
region. 

The fifteen counties of the Valley — its political divisions — are naturally 
grouped by the river basins, to which their lines generally conform. 

The noted Shenandoah Valley has, in Virginia, in the northeast Frederick and 
Clarke counties, reaching from the North Mountains to the Blue Ridge across the 
Valley, watered by the Opequon Creek and the Shenandoah River and branches; 
Shenandoah County, extending from the mountains west to the Massanutton 
range, that for 50 miles divides the Valley into two, one watered by the North 
and the other by the South Fork of the Shenandoah ; Warren, that lies at the 
confluence of these forks and between the Massanutton and the Blue Ridge, and 
Page County, between the same mountains and intersected by tlie South Fork; 
Rockingham, a large and noted county, reaching across the wliole Valley, and 
holding the sources of the Nortli Foik ; and Augusta, the largest county, also 



VIRGINIA. 71 

occupying the width of the Valley, and containing the head springs of the Shen- 
andoah. These seven counties occupy the whole of this well-known, fertile and 
wealthy valley. 

In the Valley of t?ie James are Rockbridge and Botetourt, two fine counties 
in the heart of the valley, both extending across it, the former watered by the 
North and South rivers of the James, and that river and other tributaries, and 
the latter by the much-developed James River and Catawba, Craig's and other 
creeks. The mountain scenery of Rockbridge is especially noted. 

In the Valley of the Roanoke is the small but rich county of the same name ; 
portions of Botetourt and Montgomery are drained by that river also. 

The Kanawha or New Rwer Valley has Montgomery, Pulaski and Wythe 
Counties, famous ones for grazing and stock, that reach from mountain to 
mountain. 

In the Valley of the Solston or Tennessee are the two fine counties of Smyth 
and Washington, with soils of rare fatness. 

Apalachian Virginia, succeeds the Valley on the west. It is a moun- 
tain country, traversed its whole length by the Apalachian or Alleghany 
system of mountains. It may be considered as a series of comparatively narrow, 
long, parallel valleys, running northeast and southwest, separated from each other 
by mountain ranges that are, generally, equally narrow, long and parallel, and 
quite elevated. In crossing this section to the northwest, at right angles to its 
mountains and valleys, in 50 miles one will cross from 6 to 10 of these mountain 
ranges, and as many valleys. As before stated, a strip of this region is embraced 
in the Valley counties, as they include the two or three front ranges that have 
drainage into the Valley ; so that some 900 square miles of Apalachia are politi- 
cally classed with the Valley, leaving 5,720 square miles to be treated of here. 
This, in Virginia, is an irregular belt of country 260 miles long, varying in width 
from 10 to 50 miles. Its waters, generally, flow northeast and southwest, but it 
has basins that drain north and northwest, and south and southeast. The heads 
of the valleys are generally from 2,000 to 2,800 feet above tide, and the waters 
often flow from each way to a central depression — that is, from 600 to 1,200 feet 
above sea level — before they unite and break through the enclosing ranges. The 
remarks made concerning the slopes of the Great Valley apply also to this section, 
except that the Apalachian valleys are straighter. 

The twelve counties of this section group very well as follows: 
1st. The James River group, the waters from which flow into that river, 
including Highland, on the water-shed of the James and Potomac, the South 
Branch of the latter having several of its sources there, with the Cow-pasture and 
Jackson's River branches of the former; Bath, crossed by the same branches of 
the James; Alleghany, through a portion of which the same rivers flow, and in 
which they unite, meeting the waters of Dunlap's and Pott's Creeks from the 
southwest; and Craig, drained by Johns', Craig's and Barber's Creeks, flowing 
from the southwest. Sinking Creek of New River flows southwest from this 
county. All these waters but the last run into the James before it crosses the 
Valley. 

2d. The Kanawha or New River group includes Giles, which is intersected 
by New River, into which flow from the northeast Sinking and Big and Little 
Stony Creeks, and from the southwest Walker's and Wolf Creeks ; Bland, on the 
head waters of Walker's and Wolf Creeks, just mentioned, and having also some 
of the springs of the Holston, that flows soutliwest. 

3d. The Tennessee River group, on the waters of that river, embraces Taze- 
well, on the divide of New and Tennessee, (the lowest gaps of which are 2,116 
lieet above tide); Wolf Creek, Bluestone and East Rivers run from this county 



72 VIRGINIA. 

northeast into New River, wliile tlie North and the Maiden Spring Forks of 
Clinch flow southwest ; Russell is southwest of Tazewell, and the Clinch and its 
Copper and Moccasin Creek branches run through it to the southwest ; Scott is 
next, on the southwest, and the same streams pass through it from Russell, and 
the North Fork of the Holston besides, all running southwest ; Lee is southwest 
of Scott, Powell's River and its numerous branches flowing southwest from it to 
the Clinch. All these waters unite in the State of Tennessee, and form the river 
of that name. The land of the counties of this group is exceedingly fertile, large 
portions of it being limestone; and its exposure to the southwest, and the situa- 
tion and elevation of its surrounding mountains, secure to it a very mild climate. 

4th. The Sandy River group includes Buchanan County, drained by the 
Tug, Louisa and RusselFs Forks of the Big Sandy, flowing northwest, and Wise 
County, drained by Russell's and Pound Forks of the same river, and a portion 
by the Guest's River branch of the Clinch, and some head springs of Powell's 
River. These two counties really belong to the Trans- Apalachian Country, the 
great plain that slopes from the parallel ranges of mountains to the northwest, 
from which the waters have eroded their deep channels. They cover Virginia's 
part of the great carboniferous formation, and give her a most valuable coal field. 

Apalachia is noted as a grazing country, its elevation giving it a cool, moist 
atmosphere, admirably adapted, with its fertile soil, to the growth of grass and 
the rearing of stock of all kinds. 

Inland Waters. — The State has two systems of inland waters— (1) the 
Atlantic and (2) the Ohio or Mississippi. 

(1.) The waters of the State, from Tidewater, Middle, Piedmont, the eastern 
slope of the Blue Ridge and the central part of tlie Valley, flow southeast to 
Chesapeake Bay and Albemarle Sound, following the inclination of the " Atlantic 
slope." Those from the northern portions of the Valley and Apalachia follow the 
mountain ranges northeast to the Potomac, which river follows the southeasterly 
course before mentioned. 

(2.) The waters from the southwestern part of the Blue Ridge, the middle of 
the southwestern half of the Valley and Apalachia, flow northwest and north to 
the Ohio; those of the southwestern portions of the Valley and Apalachia flow 
southwest to the Tennessee. So the waters of the State flow in all directions. 

Principal Rivers and Branches. — The waters belonging to the Atlantic 
system drain six-sevenths of the State. The principal streams of this system are: 
Thc> Potomac, a wide and deep river, the northeastern boundary of Virginia, with 
its large branches, the Shenandoah and the South Branch, and its prominent 
smaller ones, Potomac Creek, Occoquan River, Broad Run, Goose, Catoctin and 
Opequon Creeks, draining a large area of each of the sections of the State. The 
Potomac is navigable for 110 miles from where it enters the bay, some 65 miles 
from the ocean. It has many landings, and lines of steamers and sailing vessels 
connect them with all portions of the country, giving great facilities for cheap 
transportation to a very extensive and valuable portion of the Northern Neck. 
The Rappahannock, with its Rapid Anne and numerous other branches flowing 
from the Blue Ridge across Piedmont, Middle and Tidewater, UTigating a large 
territory. The Rappahannock is navigable to Fredericksburg, 92 miles from its 
mouth at the bay, some 40 miles from tlie ocean. The Piankitank, draining only 
a portion of Tidewater, is navigable for some 14 miles; and Mobjack Bay and its 
rivers furnish deep entrances to the Gloucester Peninsula. The York, with its 
Pamunkey and Mattapony branches, and many tributaries flowing from a consid- 
erable area of Middle and Tidewater. The York is a wide, deep and almost 
straight belt of water, reaching over 40 miles from the bay to the junction of the 
Pamunkey and the Mattopony, which are themselves navigable for many miles 



VIRGINIA 73 

for light-draught vessels. The James, with the Chickahomlny, Elizabeth, Nanse- 
mond, Appomattox, Rivauna, Willis', Slate, Rockfish, Tye, Pedlar, South, Cow- 
pasture, Jackson's, and many other inflowing rivers and streams of all kinds, 
gathers from a large territory in all the divisions, draining more of the State than 
any otlier river. The James is navigable to Richmond. The Elizabeth is a broad 
arm of the Hampton Roads estuary of the James, extending for 12 miles, the last 
four of which are expanded as the superb harbor between the cities of Norfolk 
and Portsmouth. All these flow into Chesapeake Bay. The Chowan, through 
its Blackwater, Nottoway and Meherrin branches and their afla.uents, waters 
portions of Middle and Tidewater Virginia. The Roanoke receives the Dan, 
Otter, Pig, and many other streams from the Valley, Piedmont and Middle Vir- 
ginia, and then flows through North Carolina to Albemarle Sound, joining the 
Chowan. The sources of the Yadkin are in the Blue Ridge. 

The waters of the Ohio, a part of the Mississippi system, drain the remaining 
seventh of the State; but they reach the Ohio by three diverse ways. The rivers 
are: The Kanawha or New River, that rises in North Carolina, in the most 
elevated portion of the United States east of the Mississippi, flows through the 
plateau of the Blue Ridge, from which it receives Chestnut, Poplar Camp, Reed 
Island and other creeks and Little River; across the Valley, where Cripple, Reed 
and Peak's Creeks join it; across Apalachia, from which Walker's, Sinking, Big 
and Little Stony and Wolf Creeks and East and Bluestone Rivers flow into it, 
and then through West Virginia into the Ohio, having cut through the whole 
Apalachian system of mountains, except its eastern barrier, the Blue Ridge. The 
Holston, through its South, Middle and North Forks, Moccasin Creek, &c., drains 
the southwestern portions of the Valley and Apalachia ; and the Clinch, by its 
North and South Forks, Copper Creek, Guest's and Powell's Rivers, and many 
other tributaries, waters the extreme southwest of the Apalachian Country. 
These flow into the Tennessee. A portion of the mountain country gives rise to 
the Louisa and Russell's Forks of the Big Sandy River, and to some branches of 
the Tug Fork of the same river, the Tug forming the Virginia line for a space. 
These flow into the Ohio by the Big Sandy. 

These are but a few of the thousand or more named and valuable streams of 
Virginia. They abound in all portions of the State, giving a vast quantity of 
water-power, irrigating the country, furnishing waters suited to every species of 
flsh, giving channels for tide and inland navigation, and enlivening the landscapes. 
Springs are very numerous, many of them of large size. Nearly everv portion of 
the State is well watered. 

GEOLOGY. 

The geological formations found in Virginia, like its geographical divisions, 
succeed each other in belts, either complete or broken, nearly parallel to the coast 
of the Atlantic. In fact, the geographical divisions of the State that have already 
been given, correspond in the main to the difl'erent geological formations, and 
have been suggested by them ; hence, those divisions are natural. 

The formations developed in Virginia, taken in the order in which they 
succeed each otlier and cover the surface, or form the rocks found with the 
surface, from the Atlantic at the Virginia capes to the northwest across the State, 
are as follows : 

Tideicater. — 1. Quarternary ; 3. L'pper Tertiary; 3. Middle Tertiary; 4. 
Lower Tertiary. Middle. — 5. Triassic and Jurassic; 6. Azoic and Granitic. 
Piedmont. — 7. Azoic, Epidotic, &c. Blue Ridge. — 8. Azoic and Cambrian. T?ie 
Valley. — 9. Cambrian and Silurian. Apalachia. — 10. Sub-carboniferous and Devo- 
nian; 11. Silurian; 12. Devonian and Sub-carboniferous; 13. Great Carboniferous. 



74 VIRGINIA. 

Tide WATER.— This is what the geologists call a tertiary or lately formed region 
—one where the remains of plants and animals found in the rocks and soils do 
not differ greatly from the plants and animals now living; they belong to the 
same families. Tlie beds of mineral substances here found are rarely converted 
into real rocks, but lie as beds of sand, gravel, clay, &c., much the same as when 
they were deposited in shallow waiters by the ocean and inflowing rivers. 

1st. The qxiarternanj or post-tertiary formation is the sandy shore, the mere 
margin, of the Atlantic and the bay. It is like the shore land of Lincolnshire 
and other eastern counties of England. 

2d. The upper tertiary or pliocene is the first step or terrace of the State 
above the ocean. It is the low plain of the Eastern Shore and Norfolk Penin- 
sulas, where the surface is composed of " light-colored sands and clays, generally 
of a fine texture, and never enclosing pebbles of large dimensions. This is, 
geologically, a similar country to most of Suffolk in England, to the hills of Rome 
in Italy, and the territory around Antwerp in Belgium. Underneath this are 
found the other formations in order, and their valuable marls can be reached at 
no great depth by going through this. The immense piles of shells found along 
the shores and the refuse fish furnish fertilizers adapted to the soils of this section. 

3d. The middle tertiary or miocene is the surface of the second step of 
country, extending from the western border of the last-described formation, 
where this passes under that, to a line running southward from Mathias Point, on 
the Potomac, to Coggin's Point, on the James— a line just west of the meridian 
of 77°. From the James south it inclines to the west. This formation generally,, 
descending from the surface, consists of the following materials : 

1. Beds of coarse sand and gravel just under the soil, sloping in position. 

2. Horizontal beds of sand and clay. 

3. Yellow marl, underlaid by a conglomerate of fragments, with shells nearly 
entire, but water- worn. 

4. Yellow marl, with friable shells and tenacious clay. 

5. Upper blue marl— a clay, bluish, of fine texture, rich in shells. 

6. Lower blue marl — clay with more sandy materials, more shells and more 

varieties. 

7. A thin band of pebbles, with ferruginous matter— the bottom of the 

formation. 

In some parts of Tidewater some of these strata harden into a sort of lime- 
stone or into sandstones, very good for building purposes. Of course, the lower 
tertiary underlies this as this underlies the upper, and is overlapped by it. This 
formation covers a large portion of the Atlantic plain and of the Lower Missis- 
sippi Valley of the United States; it is the formation of the valley of the Columbia 
in Oregon and of the valleys of California; in Europe it forms the Gironde and 
Landes of France and the basin of Vienna ; in England it is the New Forest 
Region of Hampshire and Dorset, the country around Portsmouth and South- 
ampton. 

4th. The lower tertiary or eocene. This formation underlies both the others, 
and forms the surface of the remainder of Tidewater west of the line already 
described as forming the western boundary of the middle tertiary. It is a strip of 
country some 15 miles wide along the " head of tide." The fossils found in this 
are more unlike the forms now existing. This green-sand marl formation on the 
east pushes its headlands into the middle tertiaiy, and on the west fills up the 
ravines between the headlands of sandstone, granite, &c., that protrude into it 
from the Middle Country. 

The following section, from the banks of the Potomac below Aquia Creek, 
will give an insight into the composition of this group of " rocks :" 



VIRGINIA. 75 

(1.) The soil. 

(2.) 20 feet of yellow clay, impregnated with sulphates. 

(3.) 5 feet of sulphur-colored clay, containing shells. 

(4.) 3 feet of rock, resembling marl in color and composition. 

(5.) 12 feet of yellowish gray marl, specked with green sand and abounding 
— in shells. 
40 feet, the level of the Potomac. 

In some places the marl of this eocene contains so much carbonate of lime 
from the shells distributed through it, it has become a limestone. Here are also 
beds of blue marl, shell-rock, gypseous and acid clays, dark bluish clay and sand 
containing sulphates of iron and lime. There are also beds of sand and gravel, 
coarse and often cemented by iron. In all of these there is great variety of color 
and composition. The strata are slightly inclined, generally to the southeast. 
This is the formation on which the most of Essex, Middlesex, Kent, &c., counties 
around London in England, are situated — the region of the noted London clay. 
(The same material abounds in Virginia.) The Isle of Wight, Dorset, "Wilts, 
Hants, Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge and Lincoln Counties, the most productive in 
England, are in the lower tertiary ; the cities of Liverpool and Paris are also on it. 

5th. The triassic or new red sandstone is sometimes found as transported frag- 
ments from that formation, (which forms a part of the western boundary of this 
section,) scattered over the surface of some of the peninsulas southeast from 
where this rock is found in place. 

6th. The azoic or primary r(?cA;s, which underlie all the others, and also form 
part of this western border, are sometimes found as headlands thrust into the 
tertiary or as^slands in its surface. 

Middle Country — The larger portion of this region is azoic or primary. 
The rocks contain no organic remains. They are crystalline in their character, 
generally stratified, dip at a high angle either to the southeast or the northwest, 
or are nearly vertical, rarely horizontal, and their exposed edges or "strike" run 
northeast and southwest. The strata vary in thickness from the fraction of an 
inch to many feet. 

The rocks of this formation are : Gneiss, (a name given to any crystalline, 
stratified rock composed of quartz and felspar, mixed with smaller quantities of 
hornblende, mica or other simple minerals,) the most abundant, which, along the 
east side of the 3Iiddle Country, is a gray rock consisting of quartz, felspar and 
black mica, with some spangles of white and grains of hornblende. This is the 
fine Richmond granite. In some of the layers of this rock the felspar predomi- 
nates, and the rock crumbles on exposure. The finer grained gneiss is generally 
called granite; the coarser, syenite or syenitic granite. The former are quartzose; 
the latter felspathic. Next, going westward, are other varieties of gneiss more 
slaty in structure, containing more felspar and hornblende, (quartz is the flmt 
rock ; felspar is softer and duller in color; hornblende is dark green or black,) and 
are more decayed, sometimes into beds of porcelain clay or kaolin. These are 
succeeded, on the western border of this section, by a broad belt of micaceous, 
talcose and argillaceous slates, according to the ingredient predominant in the 
rock, whether mica, talc, or soapstone or alumina. The rocks on the east side of 
this slaty belt are most micaceous ; on the west, talcose. In these belts are some 
beds or small tracts of chloritic gneiss, slate, steatite, serpentine, &.C., making 
spots noted for fertility like the Green Spring Country in Louisa County. In 
the more argillaceous part of this belt — the western side next to Piedmont — some 
of the slates become so sandy, they pass as sandstones or conglomerates, (gneissoid 
sandstones,) and among these are found roofing slates and a fragmentary bolt of 
limestone. Through the centre of this region runs the " gold belt," where gold is 



76 VIRGINIA. 

found in quartz veins, iuterstratified with the other rocks. Here are also veins of 
various kinds of iron and copper ores. This formation covers hirge areas of 
valuable country in all parts of the world. 

In this Middle Section, as before stated, laid over the other rocks, (the granitic 
ones,) or tilling depressions in them, are a number of patches of the triassic and 
Jurassic, or new red sandstone rocks, sometimes called the middle secondary, and 
generally known as " brownstone." The localities of this are {a) the "Richmond 
coal-field," a large oval area in Chesterfield, Powhatan, Goochland and Henrico 
Counties, inside Middle Virginia; (b) a small oval territory bordering Tidewater, 
between Ashland and Milford stations, on the Richmond and Fredericksburg 
Railroad, and nearly divided by it; (c) a long narrow strip bordering Tidewater 
from several miles south of Fredericksburg, on, along the west bank of the 
Potomac, to near Mount Yernon; {d) a large wedge, nearly 600 square miles, 
resting for some 20 miles on the Potomac, and extending southwest, between the 
Middle and Piedmont Sections, to its apex on the Rapid Anne, near Orange Court 
House, with a small outlying portion near that place, and extending beyond it 
towards Gordonsville ; {e) a curved portion of land extending from Hampden 
Sidney College north through Farmville to Willis' River, and northeast along that 
river to near Cumberland Court House; (/) a narrow belt along James River 
from Scottsville, some 15 miles to the southwest; ((/) a band ot country some 60 
miles long, extending from a point southeast of Campbell Court House southwest 
to the North Carolina line near Danville. 

These rocks are of the kind known as sedimentary — composed of particles of 
sand and earth, and of pebbles derived from other rocks, and deposited by water 
where they now are. They are in strata, some of coarse conglomerate, with veiy 
large pebbles; others of finer material, making sandstones, slates and shales, gen- 
erally dark brown or red in color, but sometimes gray, brownish gray or yellow, 
and greenish gray. They generally dip but little, being nearly horizontal. The 
"breeciated marble" of the Potomac is from this formation, as is also the "brown- 
stone" from Manassas. In this formation are found remains of plants as lignite 
or coaly matter, and of fishes; and in the Richmond, Danville and Farmville 
portions are valuable beds of rich bituminous coal. 

Piedmont is in the same region of primary, azoic or transition rocks as 
Middle, but they differ much in their characteristics. 

The gneiss of Piedmont, from the Blue Ridge to the Southwest Mountain, is 
usually of a darker color and coarser texture than that of Middle Virginia, and it 
has much more variety in its structure and composition. Generally, it contains 
more or less talc or chlorite, not much mica, and very often hornblende and iron 
pyrites— the latter a powerful agent in decomposing rocks, and, with hornblende, 
giving a red tinge to the soil, so that this is often called the "Red-land" District. 
Near the base of the Blue Ridge are belts of granitic gneiss ; also belts of mica- 
ceous, chloritic, argillaceous and talcose slates, generally narrow, with bands and 
patches of limestone. The epidotic or greenstone rocks form the chief mass of 
the broken Southwest jNIountain or Coast Range chain, the eastern border of 
Piedmont. These rocks are of a greenish hue, with crystals of epidote and 
quartz. They weather into a yellowish soil that changes into orange and red, 
and is always fertile. Bands of iron ores of various kinds, slates, soapstone, &c., 
are found throughout this section. 

The Blue Ridge is the border land between the azoic, primary or transition 
rocks and the fossiliferous ones. Generally, its eastern flank and summit, and 
sometimes a good portion of the western slope, are composed of the epidotic 
rocks before mentioned — more highly epidotic than even those of Piedmont — and 
SO it acquires peculiar geological characteristics. The epidote is found there 



VIROINIA. 77 

compact, with quartz imbedded as amygdaloid. &c. Here are also beds of epidotic 
granite, of whitish granite and of syenite, with sandstones and slates of various 
kinds; but epidote is here more abundant than elsewhere, and this, by decom- 
posing, makes the wonderful soil of this mountain range. 

The western flank of the Blue Ridge is composed of the rocks of the Cam- 
brian, Potsdam Sandstone, Primal, or Formation I of Professor Rogers; for by 
all these names is known the "close-grained white or light gray sandstone," with 
beds of coarse conglomerate, brown sandstones and brownish olive-colored shales, 
here found, that once made the eastern shore of a great ocean. In this formation 
are bands of specular iron ore and beds of hematite. 

The Valley is the region of Cambrian and Lower Silurian rocks— Forma- 
tions I, II and III of Rogers, or from Potsdam to Hudson River formations of 
New York, inclusive— a country mainly of limestone, slate and shale rocks, with 
a fertile soil and undulating surface. The section across the Valley through 
Staunton gives some thirty alternating bands of slates and limestones of various 
kinds— some magnesian, others silicious or rich carbonates; some compact, others 
flaggy or slaty, &c. Among these are beds of chert, iron ore, umber, lead, zinc, 
&c This formation extends northward, and forms the rich Cumberland, Lebanon 
and other valleys of Maryland, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, the Hudson and 
Mohawk Valleys of New York, and the Champlain Valley of Vermont. South- 
west it becomes the Valley of East Tennessee, and extends into Alabama, making 
a great central valley some 1,500 miles in length of unsurpassed fertility and 
productiveness. This formation underlies a large portion of Scotland, especially 
the southern and central parts; much of the area of Wales, and large districts in 
the west, southwest and northwest of England. It covers an extensive tract in 
Russia; is found in Spain, &c. The most fertile portions of New York, Ohio, 
Indiana, Kentucky, Wisconsin and Missouri are also underlaid by this rock. 

Belonging to the Valley counties, (the lines of which extend to the summit of 
the Blue Ridge, and cross often several ranges of the mountains west,) of course, 
we have the half of the summit and all the western slope of the Blue Ridge, 
already described. To it also, politically, will belong parts of the Upper Silurian 
and Devonian systems, that are more especially referred to in the account of the 
Apalachian Country. These form long ridges that rise up and run for great 
distances in the Valley, like the Massanutton and other mountain ranges, making 
barriers that divide the Valley lengthways into two parallel valleys. The rocks 
of the Valley generally dip to the southeast at a high angle. In some places there 
runs an axis through the Valley from which the rocks dip both ways-to the 
southeast and to the northwest-making an anticlinal. The upturned edges ot 
the rocks strike or run northeast and southwest with the Valley. 

Frao-ments of the sub-carboniferous formation are found along the western 
maro-in of the Vallev, sometimes containing valuable beds of semi-anthracite 
coaCas in Montgomery, Augusta and other counties. This formation consists of 
conglomerates, shales, sandstones, &c. 

The Apalachian Country, beginning with the mountains on the west side 
of the Great Vallev, is occupied chiefly by the Upper Silurian and Devonian 
rocks from IV to IX inclusive. It also sho^vs narrow outcrops of Lower Silurian 
and important areas of carboniferous rocks, comprising sandstones, slates, lime- 
stones, coal seams, &c. The sandstones hold up the high parallel ridges or chams 
of mountains that run unbroken for such long distances; the slates and limestones 
form the rich valleys between. In these rocks are great continuous bands of 
hematite and fossil iron ores, among the most abundant and valuable in the world. 
The Devoninn rocks (or old red sandstone-Rogers' VIII and IX; the corn- 
iferous, Hamilton, Chemung and Catskill groups of New York,) are found among 



78 VIRGINIA. 

those that have already been described, the convulsions of nature having exposed 
in successive ridges and valleys the different formations. Formation YIII is 
composed of slates and slaty sandstones that often appear as low serrated ridges. 
The slates are black, olive, green and reddish, sometimes with calcareous bands. 
Some of the shales contain copperas, alum and iron ore. Formation IX is known 
by its red slates and sandstones alternating with green, yellow, brown and dark 
gray shales and slaty sandstones, with some iron ore. 

The sub-carboniferous rocks in Virginia, Formations X and XI, are confined 
to narrow belts made up of conglomerates, slates, shales and limestones, running 
along the southeast flanks of the North Mountains. It is in Formation X 
(Vespertine) that Rogers locates the coal of Augusta, Botetourt, Montgomery, &c. 
Formation XI is very calcareous, and is the repository of the gypsum and rock- 
salt of Southwest Virginia, (Rogers.) Tliis is the equivalent of the carboniferous 
limestone of England. Great down-throws and upheavals of the rocks have 
brought the carboniferous and Silurian formations in the southwestern portion of 
Apalachia side by side, and all the intervening formations are often wanting. 
Iron ore of good qualit}^ is found in the shales of this group. 

The carboniferous or true coal-bearing rocks, Rogers' XII to XV, cover but a 
moderate area in Virginia, when compared with that occupied by the other forma- 
tions; still, the State has nearly a thousand square miles of territory that belongs 
to the great carboniferous in the southwest, in that portion of it lying north of 
the Clinch River and drained by its western branches, and in the Virginia terri- 
tory drained by the Sandy River, with some small adjacent areas. This formation 
is a group of sandstones, slates, bands of limestone and seams of coal, that 
together make the great Apalachian coal-field — one of the most remarkable in 
the world for the number, thickness, quality and variety of its seams of bituminous 
coal, and for their accessibility above water level. 

The formations of the Apalachian District are the same as those that cover 
large portions of the States of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan 
and Iowa. In Europe this formation occupies the Lowland Region of Scotland, 
the country of Edinburg and Glasgow ; also the Cromarty and Caithness Region. 
In England it underlies large areas in the northwest and southwest, and in Wales. 

CLIMATE. 

Virginia, as a whole, lies in the region of " middle latitudes," between 36° 30' 
and 39° 30' north, givmg it a climate of " means " between the extremes of heat 
and cold incident to States south and north of it. 

If Virginia were a plain, the general character of the climate of the whole 
State would be much the same; but the "relief" of its surface varies from that of 
some of its large peninsulas not more than 10 or 15 feet above the sea level, to 
that of large valleys more than 2,000 feet above that level. Long ranges of 
mountains from 3,000 to 4,000 feet in height run entirely across the State, and the 
waters flow to all points of the compass. So diversified are the features of the 
surface of the State, within its borders may be found all possible exposures to the 
sun and general atmospheric movements. It follows from these circumstances 
that here must be found great variety of temperature, winds, moisture, rain and 
snowfall, beginning and ending of seasons, and all the periodical phenomena of 
vegetable and animal life depending on *' the weather." 

The winds are the great agent>s nature employs to equalize and distribute 
temperature, moisture, &c. Virginia lies on the ea-stern side of the American 
Continent, and on the western shore of the Atlantic Ocean. It extends to and 
embraces many of the ranges of the Apalachian system of mountains that run 
parallel to that ocean shore; therefore it is subject not only to the general move- 



VIRGINIA. 79 

ment of winds, storms, &c., from west to east, peculiar to tlie region of tlie United 
States, but to modifications of that movement by the great mountain ranges. It 
is also subject to the great atmospheric movements from the Atlantic that, with a 
rotary motion, come up from the tropics and move along the coast, extending 
their influence over the Tidewater and Middle Regions of the State; sometimes 
across Piedmont to the foot of the Blue Ridge, but rarely ever over or beyond 
that range. It has also surface winds, usually from the southwest, that follow the 
trend of the mountains and bring to tliem and their enclosed parallel valleys the 
warmth and moisture of the gulf that clothes them all with an abundant vege- 
tation. 

The same causes that produced the magnificent forests of the carboniferous 
era and furnished the materials for the vast deposits of coal in the 60,000 square 
miles of the great Apalachian coal-field that flanks Virginia on the west, still 
operate and clothe the surface of the same region with an abundant vegetation. 
The laws of the winds make one region fertile and another barren. America 
owes its distinction as the Forest Continent to the situation of its land masses in 
reference to the prevailing winds. 

The mean annual temperature for.the State is 56°; for the Tidewater Region, 
58°; for the Middle and Piedmont, 35.60°; and for the Valley, 54°. The average 
mean temperature of the State for January is 42°, and for July 78°. 

The notable points about the climate are, first, its range — from that of the 
southeastern low plain, fronting the Atlantic and tempered by it, to that of the 
high mountain plateaus of the northwestern margin, where cold temperate condi- 
tions prevail; second, its mildness, on the whole, notwithstanding this consider- 
able range ; third, its dryness, although the rainfall is abundant, and, compared 
with most European countries, large. The climate is healthful and favorable to a 
great variety of agricultural products. 

The rainfall is next in importance to the temperature in the climate of a 
country, for heat and moisture are the two great requisites for abundant produc- 
tion when a fertile soil is present. 

Guyot, a standard authority, says: "North America has in the eastern half a 
greater amount of rain than either of the other northern continents in sunilar 
latitudes." * * "The great sub-tropical basin of the Gulf of Mexico sends up 
into the air its wealth of vapors to replace those lost by the winds in crossing the 
high mountain chains. Hence the eastern portions — the great basins of the Mis- 
sissippi and the St. Lawrence and the Apalachian Region — which, without this 
source of moisture, would be doomed to drought and barrenness, are the most 
abundantly M^atered and the most productive portions of the continent." "In the 
eastern half of the United States the southwesterly winds which prevail in the 
summer spread over the interior and the Atlantic plains an abundant supply of 
vapors from the warm waters of the gulf. Frequent, copious showers refresh the 
soil during the months of greatest heat, which show a maximum of rain. Thus 
the dry summers of the warm-temperate region disappear, and with them the 
periodical character of the rains so well marked elsewhere in this belt." 

These quotations show the advantages Virginia has, in this respect, over the 
warm-temperate regions of Europe and elsewhere. 

As to mean annual rainfall, nearly the whole State lies in a zone of from 40 
to 45 inches. 

SOILS. 

The character of the soils of Virginia, as of other countries, is dependent on 
its geology. 

Tidewater is a tertiary region. Its soils are the alluvial deposits — the sands 
and clays peculiar to that formation. The soil of the low, flat, sandy shores and 



80 VIRGINIA. 

islands is, naturally, thin, light and soft. At the same time it is warm, and, under 
the inllucnces of a mild climate, a near ocean and bay, and the dense crops of wild 
bent-grass, magothy bay-beans, &c., that grow and decay upon it, it becomes very 
productive and " quick." The salt-marshes of this region are rich in the elements 
of fertility, as is evidenced by the crops of grass they produce. The soil of the 
Eastern Shore Peninsula is like that already described, only it rests upon a stiff 
clay, and so retains fertilizers applied to it and is easily improved. The soils of 
the Norfolk Peninsula also belong to this class. They are light, warm, easily 
tilled, and respond quickly to the influence of fertilizers. All these may be char- 
acterized as garden soils, adapted to the hoe. In all this upper tertiary country 
there is much salt-marsh and sw^amp land that, when properly drained, becomes 
exceedingly productive. 

In every portion of Tidewater along the streams are "tirst" or alluvial 
bottoms, composed of mixed materials, the sediment of the waters. These, where 
above tide, or where protected by embankments, have a perpetual fertility. 

The second bottoms, or second terrace above the w^aters, are called the "rich 
lands" of the country. They "are composed of loams of various qualities, but 
all highly valuable, and the best soils are scarcely to be surpassed in their original 
fertility and durability under severe tillage." The subsoil is a dark red or yellow 
cla}'- — the yellow becoming of a chocolate color on exposure — lying not very deep. 
These soils are drier and stiffer than those of the first bottom. Sometimes they 
are sandy; but all are susceptible of improvement. 

In some places there are spots of "shelly" soil, where the remains of oysters, 
mussels, &c., have decomposed and mingled with the loam and sand. These are 
permanently fertile, bringing forth abundantly. " Shelly " soils could be made 
anywhere in this region, for Providence has bountifully supplied the means by 
which this "hint" may be taken advantage of. 

The first and second bottoms are not far above the water level, and form a 
comparatively small portion of the country. They are succeeded by the " slope " — 
the incline that reaches back to the ridge or water-shed of the peninsulas. The 
soil of these slopes, compared with that on the flat ridges, " is of a higher grade 
of fertility, though still far from valuable;" * * " generally more sandy than 
the poorer ridge laud," and, when exhausted by injudicious cultivation, inclined 
to wash during rains. "The washing away of three or four inches in depth 
exposes a sterile subsoil." Sometimes these soils are productive, but, as a rule, do 
not wear. That they are not wanting in some of the elements of fertility is well 
shown by the dense growth of pine trees that speedily covers them when aban- 
doned by severe cultivation. Though thin, sandy and poor, and considered as 
almost valueless, these lands have been made fertile by using the marls and shells 
that are near by. The same can be done again. There is a large area of this land. 

"The ridge lands are always level and very poor, sometimes clayey, more 
generally sandy, but stiffer than would be inferred from the proportion of silicious 
earth they contain, which is caused by the fineness of its particles." These evils 
*' vary between sandy loam and clayey loam." Numerous shallow basins are found 
in these soils wliich are filled with rain water in winter and are dry in summer. 

The soils of the Middle Country vary, of course, as the rocks do which 
they overlie. In a work on the Geology of New Jersey, speaking of a similar 
region in that State, it says: " Hitherto tlie country in which they* are found has 
been considered poor and little capable of improvement. But gradually the 
fanner has been encroaching upon them, and turning these unpromising hills into 
fruitful fields. It is observed that the rocks are in many places subject to rapid. 



*The azoic rocks. 



VIRGINIA. 81 

decay, and that in such localities the soil is susceptible of high cultivation." This 
report then gives an analysis of three varieties of felspar common in the composi- 
tion of the rocks there, and also in Middle Virginia, with the following results: 

SODA 
FELSPAR. 

Silica 68.6 

Alumina iq.6 

Soda II. 8 

Potash 

Lime 



POTASH 


SODA 


AND LIME 


FELSPAR. 


FELSPAR. 


64.6 




62.1 


18.5 




23-7 


16.9 




14.2 



It has been found that the soda and the soda and lime felspars are more easily 
decomposed than the potash ones. It will readily appear that a soil containing 
the ingredients shown in the table must have the elements of fertility; and since 
there are numerous and wide belts of these in this section, we find here upon 
these fertile and i^roductive soils. Along the streams also tlie transported mate- 
rials of these easily decomposed rocks have been deposited, giving everywhere 
rich soils in the " bottom " lands. "Where the beds of gray or light brown slate 
occur, the soil is not productive ; but it has been found that lime renders the soil 
from these fertile. Wherever the rocks contain epidote, they decompose into a 
very fertile soil of a deep red hue. Sometimes these rocks cover considerable 
areas; and we find these noted for their fertility, like portions of Louisa, Buck- 
ingham, and the other counties of this section. There are also calcareous soils 
found in various portions of the Middle Country, where the patches of limestone 
before mentioned occur. These are alw^ays fertile. Some of the red soils of this 
section are derived from gneiss rocks containing sulphuret of iron, but not epidote. 
Such soils are as noted for sterility as the epidotic ones are for fertility. 

The soils of the triassic or new red sandstone belts are generally fertile and 
easily worked. The composition of these rocks in New Jersey shows what they 
furnish to make a good soil. The red shale of the triassic at Brunswick, N. J., 
gave, by analysis, the following results : 

Silicic acid and quartz 73.00 

Peroxide of iron 10.00 

Alumina 3 . 20 

Lime 4-93 

Magnesia 0.90 



Potash. 
Soda. 



0.73 
0.97 



Sulphuric acid a trace 

Water 1 . 00 

Other analyses of other rocks from this formation indicate the presence of a 
considerable percentage of lime, potash, soda, sulphuric acid, alumina, silica, «fec., 
&c., all valuable ingredients of fertile soils. As a rule, the soils on the areas of 
this formation are among the best in this section. 

The soils of Piedmont and of its southwest mountain border are much more 
epidotic in their character, and therefore naturally more fertile than most of those 
farther east. 

The red or chocolate-colored soils of this section, formed from the decom- 
posed dark greenish-blue sandstone here found, is generally considered the most 
fertile. This sandstone contains several per cent, of carbonate of lime. The 
other soils ot this region are grayish or yellowish. These are b}' no means as 
fertile as the darker soils; but there are red soils here, as in Middle Virginia, that 
aie also poor ones, and for the same reasons. The epidotic rocks, from Avhicli the 
best soils of this region are formed, often contain, sa3'S Rogers, 24 per cent, of 
lime. Hornblende, in decomposing, forms a red soil also that is very fertile, but 
It contains magnesia, and less lime and alumina. 

The soils of Piedmont are, many of them, undoubtedly among tlie most fertile 
known, and can be made to produce a great variety and abundance of crops. 



82 VIRGINIA. 

They are loose and easily worked, but care must be exercised in their manage- 
ment, since they are easily washed away by heavy rains. If neglected, they are 
soon covered by a growth of underbrush. 

The Blue Ridge is composed of much the same materials as Piedmont, only 
they are richer in their abundance of greenstone rocks, which impart to the soils 
of this much expanded mountain range a wonderful fertility, and adapt them to 
the growth of rich grasses, vines, orchards and all the usual crops of the country, 
wherever the character of the surface admits of cultivation. 

The soils in the sandstone belt of the western slope of this range are sandy 
and poor. 

The soils of the Great Valley are quite numerous. They are generally 
called limestone soils, as this is a limestone region. The prevailing soil is a stiff, 
clayey loam — a durable and fertile soil well adapted to the growth of grass and 
grain. In the slaty belts the admixture of the decomposed aluminous rocks 
makes a lighter and warmer soil. There are also belts of sandy or gravelly soil 
that are cold, and require cultivation and fertilizers to make them productive, but 
once redeemed, they yield very well. Much the larger poi-tion of the Valley has, 
naturally, a good soil, rich in the elements of fertility. The soil, like the rocks, 
runs in belts, with the Valley, and the lean ones are the smaller number. The 
streams, as in all limestone regions, are very winding; so there is here a consider- 
able area of bottom lands. 

The soils of the Apalachtan Region are very marked in their character. 
The sandstone ridges and mountains are very poor, while those made up (/f lime- 
stones and some of the shales are very rich. Some of the slate valleys have a thin 
and poor soil ; others on limestone or certain red sandstones are very rich. Indeed, 
the natural exuberant fertility of some of these broad ridges and narrow valleys 
is something wonderful. Some of the little valleys are appropriately called 
"gardens." This region is so penetrated by streams that it has everywhere 
alluvial lands. 

Thus it appears that there are soils of every variety in Virginia suited to all 
kinds of productions. 

In Tidewater — peat-bottom, or swamp and savanna lands, for cranberry 
culture ; salt marshes and meadows for grass and cheap grazing ; river marshes 
that reclaimed are fine hemp lands ; plains, with soft and warm soil, for great 
market gardens and the rearing of delicate fruits ; river bottoms — marly alluvial 
lands — excellent for cotton, corn, wheat, oats or meadows ; tliin, sandy uplands 
for great sheep pastures and for forest planting. 

In Middle — clay soils that produce the finest of wheat; mixed sand and 
clay, well suited to general agriculture ; thin lands, where fruit growing would be 
remunerative; rich low grounds, where great crops of Indian corn and rank 
tobacco grow from year to year without exhausting their fertility ; light soils, 
where the finer kinds of tobacco are produced ; lands for swedes, mangolds, &c., 
and improved sheep husbandry. 

In Piedmont — rich upland loams unsurpassed as wheat or tobacco lands, and 
producing heavy crops of cultivated grasses ; low grounds, where the corn crop is 
always good, and where heavy shipping tobacco comes to perfection; lighter soils, 
where the vine and the apple produce abundantly ; the best of lauds for dairies, 
and for sheep and cattle rearing. 

In the Blue Ridge, where the natural grasses invite to sheep and cattle 
grazing, and the rich, warm soil and sunny exposures are adapted to fruit culture 
on lands that elsewhere would be too valuable for the plow. 

In the Valley — the natural blue-grass lands, the home of the stock-raiser 
and dairyman ; the heavy clay lands, fat in fertilizing ingredients, always repaying 



VIRGINIA. 83 

the labor spent on them in crops of corn or wheat ; the lighter slaty lands, famous 
for wheat crops ; the poorer ridge lands, where sheep rearing should be followed 
In the Mountain Region are great cattle ranges — lands where grass grows 
naturally as soon as the trees are cleared away and the sunlight admitted; rich 
meadow lands in the valleys well suited to dairying ; fat corn or tobacco lands 
along the streams ; lands for root crops along the slopes and on the plateaus. 

PRODUCTIONS. 

Animal Pkoducts. — The climate of Virginia is favorable for the growth and 
the products of its soil for the sustenance of animal life, consequently it has an 
abundant and vigorous native fauna on its land and in its waters. All the varie- 
ties of domestic animals reared in temperate climates have here found a congenial 
habitation, and excellent breeds of horses, mules, milch cows, working oxen, beef 
cattle, sheep, swine, goats and poultry abound in all sections of this State. 

The cost of producing a given quantity of butter and cheese is much less in 
Virginia, owing to its milder climate and longer seasons, than in many other 
States of the Union. The statistics of production show the effects of elevation 
above the sea of portions of the State, giving them more adaptability to natural 
grasses and to the dairy business. 

Sheep have always thriven in Virginia, and the wool here grown has an estab- 
lished reputation for excellence of quality. Wherever the business of rearing 
sheep, for wool or for mutton, has been judiciously conducted, it has proven 
remunerative. Few States have as many special adaptations for sheep husbandry 
— extensive areas of cheap, elevated lands, covered with natural grasses; broad 
plains suited for root culture; short winters and a comparatively dry climate, 
with nearness to markets. 

Experience has shown that lambs can be raised in Virginia, in the spring, and 
sent to the great Northern markets long before they can be put there from the 
farms nearer; consequently good prices can be realized. The low priced lands of 
Tidewater and Middle Virginia are especially well situated for thus supplying 
early lambs, and large areas there are well adapted to the growing of swedes, 
mangolds, and other crops that are so extensively cultivated in England and else- 
where for fattening sheep. 

Angora Goats have been successfully and profitably raised in Piedmont and 
Middle Virginia, furnishing large fleeces of the valuable cashmere wool. 

Bees find in the sections of this State an abundant flora, and the long and 
comparatively dry seasons are peculiarly favorable for apiculture ; especially does 
this seem to be the case in Piedmont, where large proflts are reaped by those that 
have given some attention to this pleasant home industry. 

Swine are easily and cheaply raised in all portions of Virginia, especially in 
the portions abounding in forests, where they subsist much of the year on the 
nuts of the beech, oak, chestnut, and other trees, at no cost to their owners; in 
fact, they are often fattened entirely on " mast." These animals can be reared 
more cheaply here than in almost any other part of the country ; consequently 
they are kept in large numbers, and " Virginia bacon " has a valuable reputation 
in the markets. The climate is credited with aiding in the "cure" of hog meat. 

Stock and Beef Cattle — the "other cattle" of the census — including all horned 
cattle, except milch cows and working oxen, are reared in large numbers in all 
parts of Virginia, but especially in Piedmont, the Blue Ridge, the Valley and 
Apalachia, where stock raising is an important and profitable branch of husban- 
dry. Large numbers of fat cattle are annually sent to the Eastern markets from 
the rich grass lands of the sections named, especially from the portions where the 
nutritious and fattening "blue grass" grows. Many young stock cattle are also 
sold to the farmers of the country near the large cities, where they are stall fed. 



84 VTRGINIA. 

There are vast tracts of mountain land in Virginia that furnish a " range" for 
young cattle, enabling the grazier to rear them at but little expense. These tracts 
of land are covered by a growth of timber, more or less heavy, beneath which is 
an undergrowth of rich-weed, wild grasses, &c., that are highly nutritious, and on 
which cattle can subsist from April to November. The stock raising capacity of 
the State ^an hardly be estimated, so great is it. 

The Scale and Sliell Fish of Virginia furnish not only a large portion of the 
animal food of thousands of the people of Virginia, especially in the Tidewater 
country, but immense numbers are taken from the waters of this and shipped to 
other States. 

The thousands of square miles of Virginia territory covered by tidal waters 
abound, in the proper seasons, in shad, herring, rock, perch, sturgeon, sheep's-head, 
bass, chub, spots, hogfish, trout, tailor, Spanish mackerel and other fish, besides 
crabs, lobsters, terrapins, &c. The fishing season opens early, and while the 
waters near New York, Philadelphia, and other cities in a higher latitude are yet 
frozen, the shad and other spring fish can be caught in Virginia waters and sent 
to Northern and Northwestern markets, where they command high prices. Many 
of the fresh w^ater streams of the State abound in many kinds of fish, and both 
the State and the United States authorities are stocking them with other varieties. 
No country has more or better streams for fish breeding. 

Oysters are found in all the tributaries of Chesapeake Bay and along the 
Atlantic coast, giving to Tidewater an extensive territory where this valuable 
shell fish grows naturally and where it can be propagated and reared in almost 
any desired quantity. 

An industry that is receiving some attention and will be largely developed, is 
the raising of oysters. For some years the supply of oysters from the Chesapeake 
has been growing less, and the demand increasing. Under the present system of 
depletion, the supply will soon be altogether inadequate to the demand, and prices 
will necessarily be higher even than at present, and the man who has a well- 
stocked "oyster shore" can always find ready sale for all his oysters at good 
prices. There is little expense attending the business, and the difference between 
the cost of the oysters " bedded " when small, and the price realized for them as 
'* cove " oysters a year or so afterwards, will leave a wide margin of profit. There 
is no reason why the artificial propagation of oysters should not be conducted on 
an extensive scale. In France there are oyster farms that pay an annual profit of 
$500 to $600 an acre. 

Birds for food are abundant, especially water fowl, in the great marshes and 
rivers of Tidewater, where canvas-back, mallard, creek, red-head, bald-face, teal 
and other ducks, geese, swans, sora, &c., swarm abundantly. In all portions of 
the State are found partridges or quails, pigeons, Avild doves, grouse or pheasants, 
wild turkeys, and other game birds. 

Wild Deer are found in all portions of the State, especially in Tidewater and 
the Middle and Mountain sections. 

The statistics give Virginia most ample resources of animal food, sufficient 
for a population many times as numerous as she now has. Nowhere is this kind 
of food better or cheaper. 

This State has always been noted for the general excellence of the horses and 
mules bred in it, and it is well known that they can be reared cheaply in almost 
any section. 

Vegetable Productions. — Virginia has a rich and abundant native flora, 
and the introduced plants, the cereals, grasses and others, that in temperate 
climates are objects of cultivation, here have found favorable soils and congenial 
climates. Here grow and yield abundantly the " plants good for food" both for 



VIRGINIA. 85 

man and beast, and those employed in manufactures. Timber trees of many kinds 
abound in all sections of the State. 

A comparison of the production of cereals with any other country presents 
Virginia in a most favorable light as a grain-producing region, while nearness to 
markets adds largely to the value of the products. 

Indian Corn is the staple bread grain of most sections of the State, except the 
Valley ; the laboring rural population, in many portions, use it almost exclusively. 

In Tidewater both sweet and Irish potatoes are a staple crop, the former having 
a high reputation in market for their superior quality. The latter are sent to 
market very early in the season. Except in tlie Tidewater section, where market 
gardening has become a leading industry, potatoes, as a rule, are, only raised in 
Virginia for family consumption; they are not fed to stock, nor, except from 
Tidewater, sent to distant markets. There is no question but that more use 
should be made of this prolific and easily raised article of human and animal food. 

Peas and Beans are not cultivated in Virgina to the extent they should be 
when account is taken of the large areas so admirably adapted to their cultivation, 
so much more so than to the production of maize, that requires a strong soil, 
which it rapidly exhausts. Only in Tidewater and parts of Middle Virginia are 
peas and beans farm products. 

Oats and Barley, cereals not used here for human food, are important Virginia 
crops, especially the former. Barley is only cultivated to a limited extent, though 
it always does well, and it could be most advantageously grown for exportation, 
since the climate would give it generally the quality it has only in occasional 
seasons in England, when it bears a high price. 

Tlie products of orchards and market ga/rdens in Virginia are large and valu- 
able, much more so than is indicated by the returns of the census. Every portion 
of the State is remarkably well adapted to the growth of fruits of the warm- 
temperate and temperate climates. 

In Tidewater Virginia, apples, pears, peaches, quinces, plums, cherries, necta- 
rines, grapes, figs, strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries, currants and other fruits 
thrive and produce abundantly, the quality of the products being unsurpassed, as 
the awards of the American Pomological Society attest. The value of the small 
fruits alone annually sent to market from Tidewater is more than the sums for 
orchards and gardens. The trade in early strawberries is one of large proportions. 
Especial mention should be made of the wild Scuppernong grapes, peculiar to the 
Tidewater Country near the sea, which spread over the forests and bear large 
crops of excellent fruit, from which a very palatable wine is made. The originals 
of the Catawba, Norton's Virginia and other esteemed American grapes grow 
wild in the forests of Virginia. 

All the fruits named above grow in every section of the State, except, 
perhaps, figs. Piedmont, the Blue Ridge and the Valley are famous apple regions. 
Peaches fiourish in all sections, but Middle and Tidewater may claim some prece- 
dence in adaptability. The Blue Ridge is entitled to the name of the " fruit belt," 
and its extensive area is yet to become the most noted wine and fruit-producing 
section of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. All the fruits of 
Virginia flourish there in a remarkable manner, and find special adaptations of 
soil, climate and exposure. 

No country can be better situated for market gardening than Tidewater 
Virginia. It is from 14 to 36 hours by water from Baltimore, Washington, Phila- 
delphia, New York and Boston, the centres of population of the Atlantic slope of 
the United States. At the same time, its seasons are from one to two months 
earlier, giving an advantage of fully a double price for its garden products over 
the country in the vicinity of those cities. 



86 VIRGINIA. 

The home gardens are not considered in any of the "returns" of the produc- 
tions of Virginia, where potatoes, Irish and sweet, corn, peas, beans, onions, beets, 
parsnips, radishes, lettuce, celery, salsify, asparagus, melons and squashes of 
numerous kinds, carrots, okra, tomatoes, &c., &c., are raised in the greatest 
abundance, and form a portion of the daily food of the entire population. 

The Peanut is extensively cultivated in Tidewater. Isle of Wight, Surry and 
Sussex are very notable counties for production of peanuts. Sandy and light 
soils are suited to their growth. 

Vegetable Sweets are produced in Virginia from the sugar maple and the 
Chinese sugar-cane. 

The Wine crop of Virginia is a small one, compared with the extensive ten'i- 
tory here found that is especially adapted to the growth of the vine, both by the 
character of the soil and the conditions of the climate. Fully 2,000,000 acres of 
land in Virginia have soils and exposures similar to those of the most noted wine- 
producing sections of Europe, and the seasons are so long that the grape has 
ample time to fully mature and develop its natural juices, fitting them for the 
manufacture of pure wine. Experience has shown that the vines here grown are 
free from diseases, and that they may be relied on for abundant crops. 

The Blue Ridge offers great advantages for viticulture. One vineyard on it 
in "Warren County of 75 acres produces from 20,000 to 30,000 gallons of wine and 
from 6,000 to 10,000 gallons of brandy annually, the yield being from 300 to 500 
gallons per acre. The " red lands " of the Piedmont Section are famous for their 
fitness for this pleasant and profitable industry. There are many localities in the 
other sections of the State where the vine flourishes. Early grapes are sent In 
considerable quantities from Virginia to Northern and Eastern markets. Mention 
has been made of the Scuppernong grape of Tidewater, marvellous for the space 
a single vine wnll cover and the quantity of fruit and wine it will produce. There 
is no more inviting field for the vlgneron than Virginia. 

Tobacco is a staple product of Virginia. The "Virginia Leaf" is noted the 
world over for its excellence, the result of manipulation as well as of soil and 
climate. The soils of the Piedmont and the Middle Sections are among the best 
for the growth of good tobacco; those of Middle produce the finest and most 
valuable. Tidewater is the region for Cuba and Latukiah varieties, while immense 
crops of coarse and heavy tobaccos are grown on the rich lands of the Blue 
Ridge, the Valley and Apalachla. 

It should be noted that tobacco culture is not an exclusive one in any part of 
Virginia. Large crops of grain and roots are raised on the same plantations. 

Cotton is grown in the southeastern counties of Virginia, between the James 
River and the North Carolina line. The State ranks twelfth in cotton production, 
the census of 1880 showing an annual product of 19,595 bales. 

Grass is one of the abundant productions of Virginia, much of its territory 
being inside the limits of " natural grasses," and all of it is adapted to the vigorous 
growth of the "artificial" or cultivated ones. But the character of its climate 
does not require a large stowing away of hay; therefore it does not "figure" 
largely in the returns. A reference to the number of cattle in each section of the 
State makes the (luaiitity of hay produced appear very small in proportion, but it 
shows that the pastures can be relied on for most of the year, owing to the mild- 
ness of the climate, greatly to the advantage of the stock-feeder. It is true that a 
large quantity of long forage is obtained from the " tops, blades and stalks " of 
Indian corn, which, where this Is a staple crop, take the place of hay for home 
consumption, and leave the hay for market, if desired. 

Fine crops of hay are made from cultivated grasses in all portions of the 
State, but the natural meadows are mostly in Piedmont, Blue Ridge, the Valley 



VIRGINIA. 87 

and Apalachia. The " Hay Map " of the Statistical Atlas of the United States 
shades these sections the same as it does most of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, &c., and as more productive than most of Ten- 
nessee and Kentucky. 

The perennial grasses of Piedmont, the Blue Ridge, the Valley and Apalachia, 
including the noted "blue grass," are famed for their nutritious and fattening 
qualities, and place these among the most highly favored grazing regions in the 
world. Nowhere, save on the great plains of Texas and the extreme West, or 
South America, can cattle be reared and fattened more cheaply than in these sec- 
tions of Virginia, as has been proven by the investigations of the United States 
Department of Agriculture. The Valley leads in the production of hay and seeds ; 
Piedmont follows. The meadows of the low country in Virginia have an advan- 
tage in the early " haying " time, and where not too remote from the great cities, 
much profit can be gained by being early in market. Tidewater and Middle 
Virginia have many fine alluvial meadows, and the salt marshes of the former 
yield fine crops of hay and perpetual pastures. 

The crops of clover and grass seeds are unusually large where they are made 
an object ; the long seasons seem to give a larger yield of good seed. The first 
crop of clover for the year is generally cut for hay — it has so large a growth ; and 
seed is taken from the less rank second growth. 

Flax grows well in all portions of Virginia, though little attention is now 
given to its cultivation. The elevated mountain valleys suit it admirably. 

Castor Beans are raised in considerable quantities, especially on the Eastern 
Shore of Tidewater. 

The wann tliin lands of Tidewater and the Middle country offer many advan- 
tages for growing Garden Herbs and Perfumery Plants and Shrubs on an extensive 
scale — the requisite heat and dryness of climate can there be found. 

Hops are only raised for domestic use, except in a few cases. When planted 
the vines grow luxuriantly and bear well. 

Large areas of land, similar to the hop lands of Kent, in England, and to those 
of the State of New York, can be found in Virginia, and hop culture could be 
advantageously undertaken in many localities, to vary the industrial productions. 
Ramie and Jute, most valuable textile plants, could, without doubt, be most 
advantageously and successfully cultivated on the deep and rich second bottoms 
and reclaimed swamp lands of Tidewater. Ramie is a perennial, and the stalks 
are cut three or four times in a year. Millions of bales of jute are now annually 
consumed in the manufocture of paper, gunny-bags, grain sacks, &c. 

The products of the forests of Virginia are large, varied and important. 
Tidewater Virginia has extensive forests of pine (the noted yellow Vir- 
ginia,) oak, cypress, cedar, locust, &c., from which large quantities of sawed 
lumber and timber, staves, heading, hoop-poles, shingles, railway ties, fire wood, 
&c., are constantly shipped, very often from the edges of the forests, since sailing 
vessels can penetrate all portions of the section — directly to all the seaboard 
markets of the country. Sumac is here an abundant shrub. 

The Middle Section has large areas of superior hard pine, black, white and 
other oaks, hickoiy, locust, persimmon, gum, cedar, holly, and other trees, from 
which much excellent lumber, tan bark, &c., are sent over the raihvays and canals 
that penetrate and cross it to various markets. Sassafras and sumac are plentiful, 
and the former could advantageously be made a staple crop on the ridge lands. 

Piedmont has considerable forest land with many varieties of oak, hickory, 
tulip-poplar, black walnut, locust, cedar, chestnut, pine, and other timber trees, 
but it can bardl}' be considered a source of supply for timber for exportation, save 
in a few localities. Sumac and sassafras abound. 



88 VIRGINIA. • 

The Blue Ridge is mostly covered with forests of oak, white, black, red, 
rock, &c., hickory, chestnut, locust, birch, some excellent yellow pmes, and other 
trees. This section has furnished great quantities of charcoal for the manufacture 
of iron from the ores of its western margm,and it will long be a source of supply, 
so rapidly do its forests renew themselves. The timber supply of pine and other 
woods for the eastern part of the Valley is drawn from the Blue Ridge. Here is 
found much valuable hard wood, as hickory and oak for wagon and agricultural 
implement making. This is yet to become a most important source of supply for 
oak tanbark to convert into quercitron for exportation, or to be used in the 
country for tanning. Almost any quantity of oak bark can be obtained from this 
extensive range. 

The Valley has nearly half its surface covered by a growth of oaks, hicko- 
ries and locusts, interspersed with black and white walnuts, yellow and other pines, 
all having a uniform age of 150 to 200 years. This timber, while not the largest, 
is of the very best quality, and no well settled portion of the Union can otter a 
larger quantity of timber suitable for wagon, carriage, railroad car, cabinet and 
other work, for which hard, sound and durable woods are required. The slaty 
lands abound in sumac. 

The Apalachian Country is both rich and poor in forestal wealth. On the 
sandstone mountain ranges, and in the slate and shale valleys, the trees are small 
but the growth is dense, consisting of oaks and other hard woods, pines, &c., good 
for charcoal, with larger trees in the hollows and more fertile spots. On the lime- 
stone ridges and adjacent valleys, as also in the calcareous and some shale valleys, 
on the other hand, the oaks, walnuts, white and yellow tulip-poplars, birches, 
beeches, locusts, cherries, sycamores, and other thnber trees, are found of a sound 
growth and very large size, often several feet in diameter, straight and without a 
limb for fifty to eighty feet from the ground. Only portions of this region have 
been reached hj railroads, and extensive forests of the best of timber for nearly 
all purposes await the progress of internal improvements and future demands. 
There are some extensive forests of white pine and of the more common varieties 
of the fir tribe, but generally the Coniferae, suitable for timber, are not abundant 
in the forests of this section. It is fortunate that there is so much excellent 
coaling timber here in the vicinity of large deposits of easily fused ores of iron. 
It is from these mountain forests that ginseng, snake root, sarsaparilla and other 
medical plants are obtained. 

Forest Fruits^ such as blackberries, whortleberries, cranberries, strawberries, 
dewberries, haws, persimmons, service berries, thorn and crab apples, wild plums 
and cherries, are found in boundless abundance in nearly all the unoccupied lands 
and in the forests of Virginia, where, in their season, they may be had for the 
picking by any one that is inclined to gather them. Not only are thousands of 
bushels of these wild fruits annually gathered for home use and sale in home 
markets, but they are dried or canned for exportation, furnishing important and 
valuable articles of commerce. 

Nut8 are found in all sections, embracing chestnuts, chinquapins, black 
walnuts, white walnuts or butter nuts, hickory nuts of several kinds, hazel nuts, 
beech nuts, acorns of many varieties, &c. 

MINERALS. 

The mineral resources of the State may be summed up as consisting — 

In Tidewater Virginia — of several kinds of marls, greensand, *fec,, highly 
esteemed as fertilizers; of choice clays, sands and shell-limestones, for building 
purposes. 

In the Middle Section — of fine granites, gneiss, brownstone, sandstone, 
brick-clays, fire-clays, soapstones, marble, slates, &c., for building materials; epidote 



VIRGINIA. 89 

in vai-ioiis forms and limestone for fertilizing uses; gold, silver, copper, specular, 
magnetic, hematite and other ores of iron in abundance ; bituminous coal, &c. 

In Piedmont Virginia — granitic building stones, marbles, sandstones, brick 
and lire clays; epidotic rocks and limestone, for improving the soil; magnetic, 
hematite and other ores of iron; barytes, lead, manganese, &c. 

In the Blue Ridge District — various and abundant ores of copper ; immense 
deposits of specular and brown hematite and other iron ores; greenstone rocks, 
rich in all the elements of fertility; sandstones and freestones; glass sand and 
manganese ; brick and fire-clays. 

In the Valley — limestones of all kinds, for building and agricultural uses; 
marbles, slates, freestones and sandstones ; brick and fire-clays, kaolin, barytes ; 
hematite iron ores, lead and zinc in abundance ; semi-anthracite coal, travertine 
marls, &c. 

In the Apalachian Country — limestones, marbles, sand and freestones; 
slates, calcareous marls, brick clays, &c.; various deposits of red, brown and other 
ores of iron, plaster, salt, &c., and a large area of all varieties of bituminous coal. 

COAL. 

Prior to 1883 comparatively little coal was mined in Virginia, the output of 
1880 being less than 50,000 tons, but during that year the Flat Top coal regions 
were opened up mainly by the Southwest Virginia Improvement Company, the 
Norfolk and Western Railroad having been extended to this section. In 1883 this 
company mined 99,871 tons of coal, and in 1884, 283,252 tons. There are now 
several other companies developing coal mines in the same territory, and the pros- 
pects are good for a very important coal mining interest growing up in that 
section. The coal is of excellent quality both for steam purposes and for coke 
making, and as the Norfolk and Western Railroad Company have built at Norfolk, 
Va., one of the largest coal piers in the world for shipping this coal, there is no 
doubt that there will be a large increase in the amount of coal produced at these 
mines during the next few years. This will naturally result in making Norfolk 
an important coal shipping port, and coaling station for foreign steamships. The 
distance from these mines to Norfolk is about 378 miles. For coking purposes, 
this coal, as already stated, has proved very satisfactory, and Col. D. F. Houston, 
the general manager of the Crozer Steel and Iron Companj^'s 100-ton furnace at 
Roanoke, writing of it, says: "We have been using coke made from the Flat 
Top coal at Pocahontas for the past ten months, aud find it equal to Connellsville 
coke, which we used the first two months of our blast." 

This is of great importance in the future development of Southwest Virginia 
as an iron making region, as it brings the necessary cheap and good fuel within 
convenient distance of the large supplies of iron ore accessible on New River, 
Cripple Creek and elsewhere. 

It may with safety be predicted that in a few years Virginia will take an 
important rank as a coal producing State. And she will moreover have two 
important coal ports: Norfolk receiving and shipping the steadily increasing 
quantity of coal brought from the Flat Top coal field by the Norfolk and Western 
Railroad, and Newport New^s, already doing a heavy business in West Virginia 
coal mined along the line of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad, and carried by 
that road to tidewater at Newport News. 

IRON ORE. 

In writing of the iron-ore resources of Southwest Virginia, Mr. Andrew 

McCreath, in his "Mineral Wealth of Virginia," says: 

"The most important development of the brown hematite ores along the 
Norfolk and Western Railroad system, and, considering their richness and char- 



90 VIRGINIA. 

acter, one of the most important in the country, is the great iron-ore belt which is 
opened up by the Cripple Creek extension. The railroad passes for miles through 
rich outcrops of iron ore, with numerous mines now opened and worked to supply 
the small charcoal furnaces of the region. 

"This iron-ore region is for the most part embraced in Pulaski, Wythe and 
Smyth Counties, in Southwest Virginia. The ores lie on both sides of New River 
and Cripple Creek, and the railroad line following these streams renders the whole 
ore supply practically available for market. 

*'The limestone ores of the Cripple Creek region show as high a general 
character as any brown hematite ores mined in the country. The result of 
numerous analyses shows an average richness in metallic iron of over 54 per cent, 
in the ore dried at 212° F., with about one-tenth of one per cent, of phosphorus. 
This unusually fine character is found to be very uniform through all the numerous 
mines and outcrops examined. It is somewhat extraordinary that not only is there 
this regularity in the percentage of iron, but also that the phosphorus shows a 
great uniformity in specimens taken widely apart ; and in no case has it been 
found to exceed two-tenths of one per cent. The quality of the ore is such that 
it smelts very easily in the furnace, and it should require a minimum amount of 
both flux and fuel. 

" The mountain ores of the Cripple Creek region have been but little worked, 
owing to the greater accessibility of the limestone deposits. 

"Geologically, these mountain ores represent the same horizon as those which 
have been extensively worked in numerous other places, which have so frequently 
afforded large quantities of good ore, and which are now furnishing the regular 
supplies to the Crozer Furnace at Roanoke and to the Gem Furnace at Milnes. 

" The quantity of iron ore in the Cripple Creek region is undoubtedly very 
great. The limestone deposits occur in clefts and cavities of the limestone mixed 
with clay, but in this district rarely with any flmt. The method of occurrence is 
such that the banks will yield widely varying quantities of ore. Some of them 
have been worked for many years, and shafts are reported to have been sunk 100 
feet in ore-bearing clays with bottom of shaft still in ore. Frequently the ore- 
bearing material is of unusual richness, yielding in the w^asher fully one-half 
clean ore. 

"The developed mines represent but a part of the limestone ore deposits, as 
there are numerous rich and widely extended outcrops of iron ore which have 
either as yet never been tested, or else only a few shallow pits have been sunk 
just suflicient to show that the ore continues below the surface, without deter- 
mining its depth. 

" Facilities for economical mining are possessed by this region in a marked 
degree, lor the limestone ores are very free from flint, and are generally found in 
a loose granular clay which is easily washed out; there is abundance of water for 
washing purposes, both in the branch streams and in Cripple Creek itself; the ore 
deposits are geographically and topographically w^ell situated for mining, and the 
ore-bearing material is frequently of unusual richness. As a result of all these 
favorable circumstances, the region is to-day producing very cheap limestone ore, 
and the amount of such cheap limestone ore can be quickly and largely increased. 
It is safe to say that the district can compare favorably in the cost of production 
with any other brown hematite iron ore producing region." 

PIG IRON. 
The production of pig iron in Virginia has shown a very rapid increase during 
the last five years. The advantages possessed by that State for making iron are 
probably not surpassed by any other section of our countr}^ wiien the cost, trans- 
portation facilities and nearness to consuming markets are taken into account. 
Since 1880 Virginia has increased her production of pig iron from 29,934 tons to 
157,483 tons — a rate of increase that is surprisingly large. The gain has been steady 
from year to year without any fluctuation. In 1880 the production was 29,934 tons ; 
in 1881, 83,711 tons; in 1882, 87,731 tons; in 1883, 152,907, and in 1884, 157,483 tons, 
showing an increase in 1884 even, as compared with 1883, notwithstanding the 
fact that the aggregate production of pig iron in the whole country in 1884 was 
557,000 tons less than in 1883, owing to the general industrial depression. The 
cost of making pig iron in the South is a much disputed question. There are 
some who claim that it can be produced at extremely low figures, even $8 and $9 



VIRGINIA. 91 

a ton being often mentioned, while others are equally as positive that the cost is 
much greater. In the first class there are probably some who are interested either 
in selling mineral lands or in seeking to develop some special locality, while 
among the second class would doubtless be found some who have private reasons 
for making the cost appear larger than it really is. There is, however, a middle 
ground which will bring us very near to the truth. Probably the most reliable 
and unbiased statements regarding the cost of pig iron making in Virginia are 
those of Prof. McCreath, already quoted. Prof. McCreath is chemist to the State 
Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, and consequently can hardly be accused of 
being partial to Virginia ; moreover, he was recommended for this work by many 
of the leading iron makers of Pennsylvania. After a thorough examination, he 
submitted the following estimates as to the cost of making pig iron in Virginia 
and in Pennsylvania: 

Cost of Making Iron in Virginia. 

AT MILNES. BUCHANAN. KOANOKE. PULASKI. CRIPPLE CREEK. 

Ore $450 $4 73 $4 79 $4 79 $3 4° 

Coke 5 25 4 46 3 69 3 31 3 88 

Limestone 30 60 75 60 50 

Labor I 50 200 2 10 200 200 

Incidentals i 00 i 25 i 25 i 25 i 25 

Total cost per ton — $12 55 $13 04 $12 58 $11 95 $11 03 

Cost op Making Iron in Pennsylvania. 

MIDDLE LOWER LEHIGH 

PENNSYLVANIA. HARRISBURG. SUSQUEHANNA. VALLEY. PITTSBURGH. 

Ore .........$ 7 75 $7 5© $725 $800 $1000 

Fuel, coal and coke.. 4 62 4 50 4 95 5 00 3 00 

Limestone i 00 85 56 77 77 

Labor, ) „ „ 

Incidentals.! 3=5 325 325 325 325 

Total cost per ton.. $16 62 $16 10 $16 01 $17 02 $17 02 

The figures for Milnes, Virginia, are the actual cost of making coke pig iron 
at the large furnace located there ; and while the figures for Roanoke were given 
when made as estimates, they are confirmed by the general manager of the Crozer 
Steel and Iron Company of Roanoke, who puts the actual cost at his furnace at 
$12.60. It is possible — indeed, quite probable — that the economies lately intro- 
duced into iron making, forced, as they were, upon furnace owners by the extreme 
depression of 1884, have made somew'hat of a reduction from the foregoing figures 
as to the cost of iron making in Virginia. Prior to the severe business depression 
that at this writing appears to be passing aw^ay, a large number of companies had 
been organized and chartered to erect furnaces in different parts of Virginia, and 
but for this depression, probably half a dozen large furnaces of an aggregate 
capacity of 150,000 to 200,000 tons annually would now be under construction in 
that State. These companies, having their charters already secured, will no doubt 
take advantage of the first decided improvement in the iron trade and commence 
the erection of their furnaces, and thus add to the steadily increasing production 

of pig iron in Virginia. 

MANUFACTURES. 

In the amount of capital invested in manufjictures, Virginia at the taking of 
the census in 1880, w^as surpassed by only two of the Southern States — Maryland 
and Kentucky. Next to Virginia came Georgia with $20,672,410 invested in 
manufacturing, against $26,968,990 in the former State. In 1880 Virginia had 
5,710 manufacturing establishments, employing 30,184 hands, and producing 
manufactured products to the extent of $51,780,992. These figures, however, give 
but little idea as to the extent of manufoctures in this State at present, as the last 
four years have been very active ones in the building up of the industrial interests 
ol Virgmia. In 1880 for instance, Virginia produced only 29,943 tons of pig iron, 



93 VIRGINIA. 

while in 1884 nearly 153,000 tons were made in that State ; in 1880 the cotton 
mills of the State had 44,000 spindles, while in 1884 tliey had 66,000. These are 
but illustrations of the general industrial progress of Virginia, though possibly in 
other interests the development has been somewhat less rapid. It has lately been 
stated by a good authority that in one county alone $5,000,000 had been invested 
in manufacturing and mining industries during the last ten years, and of this the 
bulk has been invested since 1880. In the manufacture of tobacco Virginia takes 
a high rank, the product of her immense tobacco factories being found in nearly 
if not every civilized country of the w^orld. As in North Carolina, this business 
is rapidly increasing, and lately a number of important tobacco manufacturing 
enterprises have been organized in the State. The flour milling interest is a very 
large and flourishing one, the excellent quality of Virginia wheat enabling the 
millers to produce a superior quality of flour in much demand outside of the 
State, and especially in South America, where very large quantities of Richmond 
flour are annuallj^ consumed. 

The manufacture of machinery is probably carried on more extensively in 
Virginia than in any of the other Southern States, excepting JVIaryland and possi- 
bly Kentucky, though it is impossible to give any statistics on this, later than the 
census reports of 1880, and they are of little value so for as the present industrial 
position of the Southern States is concerned. At Richmond and Roanoke there 
are machine shops of enormous size and capacity, equalling in extent and in the 
character of the work turned out, the largest machine shops to be found in the 
North. These shops not only make the general run of machinery such as 
engines, boilers, saw mills, &c., but they also do a very large amount of railroad 
work, some of the locomotives manufactured by them being equal to the best 
made. In nearly all portions of the State manufactures are receiving increased 
attention, and strong efforts are made by the press and the people to encourage 

the manufacturing interests. 

OYSTER INTERESTS. 

In the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries, Maryland and Virginia have a 
magnificent source of wealth. This bay has long been noted as containing the 
most extensive and valuable oyster beds in the world. It is true that these oyster 
beds are gradually being depleted by excessive dredging; but as this will drive the 
oystermen into the regular cultivation of oysters, and thus increase their profits 
and enlarge the annual yield, it can hardly be looked upon as a permanent injury 
to the State. There are few industries of any kind that offer larger returns for 
the capital invested and are as safe and secure as oyster planting. It is an 
industry which needs only a moderate amount of attention, and does not require 
any special training or education, and yet, if intelligently managed, will almost 
certainly yield very liberal profits. The oyster planters of the Chesapeake almost 
without exception find their business profitable. It is a business in which either 
large or small capital can be invested to advantage — the rate of profit probably 
being very nearly the same in either case. 

In 1880, Mr. R. H. Edmonds, editor of the Manufacturers' Record, Baltimore, 
at the request of the United States Census Department, prepared a report for the 
census upon the " Oyster Interests of the Chesapeake Bay," from which the fol- 
lowing statistics are gathered: There are 14,236 men engaged in catching oysters 
in Virginia, using in their work 4,481 canoes or small boats averaging about two 
men each, and 1,317 larger boats running from 10 to 20 tons each and employing 
on the average about four men each. Of the aggregate number of oystermen, 
6,538 are white and 7,698 colored. The total value of the boats engaged in this 
business in Virginia is $790,200. There were in 1880 twenty-five firms in Virginia 
engaged in canning oysters, their capital being $119,350. They handled in that 



VIRGINIA. 93 

year 1,622,180 bushels of oysters, valued at |726,693. The total quantity of 
oysters taken m Virginia waters for the census year was 6,837,320 bushels. The 
aggregate amount of capital invested in all branches of this business was 
$1,361,100; the number of people employed, 16,264, and their wages and earnings 
were $3,125,923. 

EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES. 

The State has an excellent system of public schools, as complete, except in 
thinly-settled districts, as in any other State. Private schools, academies and 
colleges are numerous. The University of Virginia, near Charlottesville, ranks 
with the best universities in the country. The Washington and Lee University 
and Virginia Military Institute are colleges of high grade. 

TRANSPORTATION. 

Virginia is well supplied with transportation facilities. The State has a large 
railroad mileage, and through its enormous extent of water front along the Chesa- 
peake Bay and its numberless tributaries, the whole of Tidewater Virginia is kept 
in close and cheap communication with leading markets by means of steamboats 
and sailing vessels. 

MINERAL WATERS. 

Virginia has for years been famous the world over for the number and value 
of her mineral springs. In the western section of the State there is hardly a 
neighborhood without its springs of mineral water. There is probably no other 
State in the Union possessing so many popular resorts. The people not only of 
the South, but of the North and West as well, gather at these springs in the 
summer in enormous numbers to drink the health-giving waters and breathe the 
invigorating mountain air. The furnishing of farm products to the hotels is a 
profitable business for the local farmers and truck raisers. 

Virginia offers many inducements to the investor and the settler, and her 
advantages for industrial or agricultural pursuits and her attractions as a place of 
residence are well worth investigating. 



WEST VIRGINIA. 



This State lies south of Penusylvauia ; it is bounded on the east by Maiyhiud, 
on the southeast and south by Virginia, and on the west by Kentucky and Ohio ; 
it is separated from Ohio by the Ohio River. The population of the State is 
given in the last census report as 618,457—600,193 native and 18,265 foreign; 
592,537 white and 25,886 colored. 

The following on the topography of the State is by Wm. M. Fontaine, A. M., 
Professor of Natural History, &c., at the University of West Virginia: 

It will, perhaps, give a better general idea of the topography of the country 
if we select for examination one of the streams which rise on the eastern edge of 
the State, near the Alleghany Mountains, and flow westward into the Ohio. Such 
a stream, when followed from its mouth to its source, will take us across the 
entire width of all the various surface features to be seen in that region ; for it 
must be noted that areas with similar topographical features have their greatest 
dimensions along lines running northeast and southwest here as elsewhere in the 
Apalachian Region. 

For our present purpose no stream is better suitable than tlie Kanawha, and 
its continuation in the New and Greenbrier Rivers. The features seen along this 
line are to be found on any of the streams which pursue aeimilar course Such 
are the Big Sandy, Guyandotte, Gauley, Elk and Little Kanawha. 

Commencing then on the Ohio and proceeding eastward, we note the follow- 
ing facts: 

In the vicinity of the Ohio, as we enter the Kanawha, we are accompanied 
by hills of moderate height (200-300 feet) with gentle slopes, and placed more or 
less widely apart, having extensive bottoms along the river and other indications 
of a surface composed of soft and easily worn-down material. These features 
accompany us for a long distance, until we approach Charleston. As we near 
this point the hills become higher and higher, with more precipitous slopes and 
narrower valleys. At the same time they close down on the river nearer and 
nearer. 

Passing Charleston, the same features continue, the hills gaining in height 
along the river until they reach, in the vicinity of Coalsburg, the altitude of 800 
feet above the stream. They continue to rise gradually until, near the foils, they 
attain the height of 1,100 feet. At the falls the river passes into that part of its 
course marked by canon features, and from this point takes the name of New 
River. A little back from the immediate l)anks the hills rise into quite lofty 
mountains, attaining in Gauley Mountain the heiglit of 1,800 to 1,900 feet above 
the river. 

The canon features attend New River to beyond Quinnimont, a distance of 
more than 40 miles. These are caused by the rise al)ove the water level of the 
massive sandstones of the conglomerate series. Wherever the rivers are flowing 
through and over this series, especially its upper portion, they present much the 
same character. In such cases they are walled in by high hills or precipitous cliffs 



WEST VIRGINIA. 95 

-which rise almost immediately from the water's edge, leaving no bottoms or low 
grounds. The beds of the streams are rugged and choked with great masses of 
stone fallen from the cliffs above, while continual rapids and falls combine to give 
them still more of the character of mountain torrents. Such a conformation has 
given to New River its well-known reputation for wildness and ruggedness. But 
in these features it is even surpassed by its southern neighbors, the Guyandotte 
and Big Sandy. 

While such wild and rugged scenery is presented along the immediate banks 
of the streams in this area occupied by the conglomerate, the case is very different 
when we ascend the inclosing hills. It is thus seen that the rivers are really 
flowing in deep trenches far below the general plane of the country. This 
general plane is determined by the upper surface of the conglomerate series, 
which continues to rise to the east at an average rate of 50 feet to the mile. As 
a consequence of this state of things, the conglomerate rising faster than the 
rivers fall, the cliffs which border them become higher and higher and the general 
surface more elevated as we proceed east, until the upper surface of the conglom- 
erate series is carried so high in the air that it has been broken down and removed 
hy the action of the elements. 

This plane, determined by the upper surface of the conglomerate, is dotted 
over with hills, which do not, in their general aspects, differ from those seen else- 
where over most of the State. Many of them rise to a considerable height, owing 
to special agencies which have acted to preserve them. Where their conglomerate 
base has risen to a considerable height, they attain above tide an elevation which 
would by no means be suspected by an inspection of their altitude above their 
bases. Such elevations are those of Big Sewell, Cherry Pond and Guyandotte 
Mountains, &c. 

The conglomerate base continues to rise as above described until it makes its 
last appearance on the east in the Great Flat Top and White Oak Mountains. 
Here it has attained the elevation of 2,800 to 3,000 feet, 

Passing be5^ond the line of these mountains, near Hinton, and following the 
Greenbrier River eastward, we find the general plane of the country greatly 
lowered, the canon features lost, and the surfjice presenting general features like 
those seen below Charleston. This continues until we approach the White Sul- 
phur, on the eastern border of Greenbrier, when we meet for the first time the 
long parallel folds of the Alleghany Mountains. 

If now we take a similar course from west to east in the northern part of the 
State, we will find a different topography. 1 here is no rise of the general plane 
of the country to the east in this quarter, for the conglomerate is too deeply 
buried, and its thickness has become too much diminished. Commencing on the 
Ohio in the northern part of Wetzel and proceeding east across Monongalia to 
the west border of Preston, we find no essential difference. On the Ohio the hills 
are higher here than at the mouth of the Kanawha, since they reach the height of 
500 and 600 feet above the river. In Wetzel they rise still higher above their 
valleys, but in Monongalia they again show the same altitude as on the Ohio. On 
the west border of Preston we meet in Laurel Hill the most westerly of the 
parallel folds of the Alleghany system, and thence these are continued, growing 
closer and higher as we proceed eastward. 

A bird's-eye vie^v of the Ohio River would show it, throughout much of its 
course, flowing between high sharp-backed hills. These are higher in the north, 
lower in the middle, and higher again in the southern part of its course. 

In order to understand the topography of a country we must know its 

geology, for the rocks which underlie tlie soil form the materials out of which the 

/Surface features have been carved, and their varying hardness and proneness to 



96 WEST VIRGINIA. 

disintegration will determine the shapes finally assumed. We will then, in thiff 
connection, briefly describe some of the more important geological formations 
solely in their topographical relations. The formations which have had by their 
presence the most influence on the topography of our State are the following, 
beginning with the highest and latest formed: 1. The upper barren measures 
and productive coals. 2. The lower barren measures and productive coals. 3. 
The conglomerate scries. 4. Tlie umbral shales and limestone. 5. The vesper- 
tine shales. We may omit, in this connection, the consideration of the other 
formations, reserving their description for another topic, since they compose a 
comparatively small portion of our area. 

The upper barren measures and productive coals are everywhere in the State 
— mainly soft crumbling rocks, such as shales and shaly sandstones, which are 
easily worn down and removed by rains and running streams. They are greatly 
thickened in the northern part of the State, but in passing South become com- 
paratively unimportant. Whenever they are present, owing to the readiness with 
which they are worn away, they produce high conical or rounded ii'lls, with deep 
narrow valleys, forming an irregular net-work of streams. These streams rarely 
have much bottom land, but it is not uncommon to find the hills with broad flat 
summits. 

The lower barren measures and productive coals, in the northern part of the 
State, are comparatively thin, and do not differ materially in their structure and 
topography from the overlj^iug series first described ; but in the south there is a 
very material change. The series becomes greatly thickened, and there is a much 
larger proportion of firm massive sandstones in it, especially towards the lower 
portion. As the topographical effects of these sandstones are, in general, the same 
with those of the conglomerate series, we need not consider them separately. It 
will be sufiicient to say that the change in the topography, described above, as 
seen in approaching Charleston from the Ohio River, is due to the rise of these 
rocks above water level. The conglomerate series, in the northern portion of the 
State, is comparatively quite thin, and is so deeply buried under the productive 
coal measures that it has no effect on the topography. It is first seen in Laurel 
Hill rising above the surface, and from that point eastward it has an important 
influence on the surface contours, entering mainly into the mountain ridges. It 
is here principally massive sandstone. 

In the south, on the contrary, we find it greatly thickened and elevated to the 
surface over broad areas. Along New River and southward it has a threefold 
structure, being massive sandstone at bottom, more shaly and easily eroded strata 
in the center, and on top again massive sandstone of great thickness. Throughout 
the series massive sandstones predominate. The influence of this series, combined 
with that of the more massive portions of the lower productive coals, has had an 
exceedingly important effect on the topography of the central and eastern por- 
tions of the State. This is in large part due to the highly siliceous character of 
many of these sandstones, wiiich has enabled them to resist in a remarkable 
manner degradation and removid by running streams. Such sandstones are inde- 
structible, except by undermining and throwing down the ledges; and this process 
of undermining is what has filled the streams flowing in this formation with the 
huge masses of stone which we see. Especially is this true of the uppermost 
ledge, which is usually over 150 feet thick. 

Underlying the conglomerate series we have the umbral shales and sand- 
stones, followed below by the umbral limestone. These^shales and sandstones are 
generally soft and easily cut away, while much of the limestone beneath is more 
resistant. Hence the country having these rocks on the surface is usually much 
lower than that occupied by the conglomerate, they having been cut away much 



WEST VIRGINIA. 97 

more rapidly. We tiud these strata over much of the country lyiug to the east of 
the conglomerate, which, as stated above, makes its last appearance in White Oak, 
Elk Knob and Flat Top Mountains. 

The last formation to be mentioned here is the upper member of the vesper- 
tine, which is formed of crumbling red shales, and these even more readily than 
the shales of the umbral are broken down and removed. These form the only 
other rock composing the surface of Mercer, jNIonroe and Greenbrier besides the 
above named. 

For the purpose of topographical description we may divide the State into 
two regions, in which the surface features present important differences, and are 
due to the action of essentially different causes. Our dividing line must be some- 
what arbitrarily selected. It may be taken as follows : 

Beginning in the north, it commences in Laurel Hill, on the west border of 
Preston, and is thence continued south, in the mountain of that name, on the 
western border of Barbour; thence in Rich Mountain in Randolph; Gauley and 
Greenbrier Mountains in Pocahontas ; the Main Alleghany, near the White Sul- 
phur; and lastly, Peter's Mountain, in the southern part of the State. The 
country between this line and the Ohio River may be styled the Hilly Region, 
and that lymg to the east of it the Mountain Region. 

It must be borne in mind that this division is not founded on altitude alone, 
but also on considerations which will be presently given. Indeed, contrary to 
what the titles might suggest, the elevation of much of the Hilly Region is above 
that of a portion of the Mountain Region, 

In that section which we have styled the Hilly Region, and which comprises 
much the larger part of the State, are to ])e found those peculiar topographical 
features which have given our State considerable celebrity. Leaving out of view 
for the present the special features which mark the canon portions of the streams 
in the south, and the country wherever the conglomerate has attained a consider- 
able height above the rivers, we may briefly describe them as follows : First, we 
note a vast multitude of hills, sometimes closely placed, and rising immediately 
from the V-shaped depressions in which the streams flow; again, sloping more 
gently, with considerable bottoms at their base, spreading out into flat-topped, 
gently undulating plains on their summits ; or again, expanding into elevations 
attaining the dignity of mountains. Looking across such a region, it often pre- 
sents nothing but a succession of such hills and valleys. As a rule, these succeed 
each other in no particular order, but occur just as the streams, turning hither 
and thither to avoid some harder rock, carved them out. Occasionally the out- 
crop of some more indestructible stratum has determined the direction of a line 
of elevations, or a remnant of a harder overlying mass has, along certain deter- 
minate lines, preserved the underlying softer material from erosion, and so left 
more or less connected ridges and mountains. These are the general features 
presented by the elevations in the softer strata of the productive coals, and in the 
similar rocks underlying the conglomerate series. The special modifications pro- 
duced by this latter series will be noted further on. 

Again, as might be inferred, the streams in the above-described districts are 
marked by the great irregularity of their courses. They flow to every quarter of 
the compass, but all finally make their way westward or northwestward into the 
Ohio. These, as well as all the streams in the State, are remarkable for the great 
depth to which they have cut their channels. Here, however, although the valleys 
are deep and narrow, they have none of the canon features; but the bordering 
hills may be cultivated to their tops, though often too steep and with a soil too 
light to render frequent ploughing advisable. 



'98 M^EST VIRGINIA. 

In all this Hilly Region the surface features are entirely the work of erosion. 
The rains and running streams have cut lofty hills and veritable mountains out of 
the gently sloping and often almost horizontal strata, having removed a truly 
astounding mass of material by their slow, ever- wearing flow. Indeed, when one 
thinks over the vast amount of wear that the surface of our State exhibits, he is 
tempted to speculate about a pefiod when the rains were far heavier and the 
streams more powerful than at present — a period when the laud, newl}- raised 
from the carboniferous seas, was exposed as a lofty barrier to the sweep of west- 
erly winds laden with moisture from extensive seas penetrating into the land far 
beyond the present Gulf of Mexico. 

We will now turn to the inspection of the topography of the Mountain 
Region. Omitting the counties of Berkeley (in part) and Jefferson, this region 
includes all east of the line described as the eastern boundary of the Hilly Region. 
Here also we find stupendous monuments of the leveling powers of the atmos- 
pheric agencies ; but these have not been the only forces at work in this district 
in modeling the hills and valleys, as was the case in the Hilly Region. 

The surface of this part of the State, when first upheaved and exposed to 
denuding forces, was thrown into long parallel elevations and depressions running 
in a northeast and southwest direction. These folds, on the east border of the 
State, are comparatively close together and narrow. Going west they widen out 
and become more distant, until, before reaching the Ohio, they become imper- 
ceptible. The strata which compose these folds are alternations of soft yielding 
rocks and massive sandstones, among which latter the conglomerate series above 
described plays no unimportant part. 

In the easternmost and more sharply folded flexures the stiff", unyielding sand- 
stones were, along the crest lines of the ridges, where the strain was greatest, 
burst asunder and broken to fragments, exposing the next succeeding soft strata 
below. 

AVhen now these elevated ridges or anticlinals were exposed to the wearing 
action of rains and torrents, these stripped off all softer material from the sum- 
mits, and left bare the arches of massive sandstone, with their fractured crowns. 
The surface waters working their way along these fractures soon reached the 
softer material below. Here their progress was more rapid, and, by cutting down 
and undermining the walls on either side, they have finally excavated channels of 
greater or less width. 

Such has been the history of the formation of many of the narrow parallel 
valleys in the northeastern counties of the State, and more particularly in Ran- 
dolph and Pendleton. Where the process above described has been carried on on 
an extensive scale, we see the river now flowing in a narrow valley between two 
mountain walls. This is the case with Tygart's Valley River in Randolph. 
Where less complete, we find the stream flowing on the top of a mountain, and 
still cutting its way down in the massive sandstone, as in the case of some of the 
Forks of Cheat. 

Again, in the originally depressed portions or synclinal valleys, which, being 
less elevated, have suffered less from erosion, we find streams flowing, in like 
manner, between mountain chains ; and it is easy to see how the waters would 
have gathered in sucli valleys. Synclinal valleys may be distinguished by the fact 
that the rocks dip from both sides towards them, w^hile in the case of valleys of 
the former class, or anticlinal valleys, they dip away from them on both sides. 

It often happens in the Mountain Region which we are describing that the 
arches and folds are too broad to be cracked along their crest lines. Then they 
often afford on their summits flat or gently undulating surfaces, which are called 
Glades by the inhabitants, but which are simply table-lands of greater or less 



WEST VIRGINIA. 99 

extent. This feature is more common when the huge unyielding masses of tlie 
conglomerate series enter into the structure of the country. We also find the 
anticlinal valleys, with their canon-like features, more commonly where the con- 
glomerate is present. This rock is extensively exposed in the Mountain Region. 
Such are the general features presented in the two regions into which we 
have divided the State, and such were some of the special circumstances which 
modified erosions in the Mountain District. 

CLIMATE, &c. 

In considering the climate of the State we may divide it into three belts 
running in a northeast and southwest direction. 

The first belt comprises the counties along the Ohio River, and may be taken 
to coincide with our first topographical belt. This C(jmprises the lowest laud in 
the State. The second climatic belt may be taken to include all the rest of the 
State, except the Mountain Region. The third half includes the Mountain Dis- 
trict. It will be convenient to designate the first belt as the " Oluo counties ;" the 
second belt as the "Plateau District," and tlie third as the "Mountain District," 
inasmuch as these names suggest the position and altitude of the areas which 
they designate. 

For all of these there is a great lack of data connected with the climate, but 
in the Ohio counties records have been kept for a nuich longer time than else- 
where. For the Plateau District we have a few details, and for the Mountam 
District none at all. 

The Ohio River Valley is often spoken of as possessing features of climate 
distinct from those shown in other parts of the State. This, taken without quali- 
fication, would lead to erroneous ideas of the topography of the stream. The 
valley proper is a narrow trench cut out in high hills for most of the way. 

It attains at most the width of only a mile or two, and cannot exert any 
important influence on the climate of the country in general. In summer it may 
influence to some extent the formation and course of showers, or it may fiicilitate 
the passage of bodies of warm, moist air from the southwest. Apart from minor 
and local influence, it is to be considered merely as one of the factors influencing 
the climate of the belt of country along its banks. 

If, however, we apply the term "Ohio Valley" to the belt of comparatively 
low country along the west border of our State, then, no doubt, climatic features 
somewhat difi'erent from those of the rest of the State do exist here. 

Leaving out of consideration the influence of altitude, the most important 
general causes control' ing the climate are the character of the exposure of the 
surface, the direction assumed by the principal elevations, and the prevailing 
winds. The State forms a sloping surface, inclining in a northwesterly direction, 
from the highest ridges of the Alleghany to the hills along the Ohio River. The 
principal elevations, even in the Hilly Region, run in a northeast and southwest 
direction. 

When now we take into consideration the winds which prevail along the 
Apalachian belt of the United States, we can easily see that these topographical 
features assume great importance. In our latitude, even east of the Blue Ridge, 
easterly winds are not the predominant ones; but in Virginia, especially in winter, 
they often blow for a considerable space of time, bringing with them, when from 
the northeast, the longest spells of wet weather. Owing to our protection by the 
Blue Ridge and AUeghanies, such winds do not reach us, and hence, in West 
Virginia, winds with an easterly element are extremely rare. If they do reach 
us, they are usually drying and clearing winds, having been deprived of their 
moisture by passing over the mountain tO])s. 



100 WEST VntGINIA. 

Our •winds are almost exclusively those with a westerly element, such as 
southwest, west and northwest. When these enter our State, the northeast and 
southwest direction of our elevations exert such a guiding influence on them that 
instead of passing directly across the State, they are forced to traverse it longitu- 
dinally. Tlie consequence is that we feel the full effects of such winds, whatever 
they may be. Southwest winds enter freely and are guided unchecked in their 
original direction; hence such winds the year round predominate, at least in 
influence. Westerly and northwesterly winds are partly deflected, so as to pre- 
serve a southeast or northeast direction. The inclination of the face of me 
country also exerts an important influence. 

Such winds enter the State on its lowest side, and in working their way over 
it they rise higher and higher. The consequence is that they become cooled, and 
their moisture is condensed if they be moist, warm winds. Thus an abundant 
rainfiill is secured. The country never suffers from the prolonged dry spells 
which sometimes occur east of the Alleghanies. A mere inspection of the map 
of this region will show, by the enormous number of perennial streams possessed 
by it, that this precipitation is not only abundant, but that it is uniformly dis- 
tributed throughout the year. Our State contributes no small proportion of the 
volume of water carried by the Ohio into ihe Mississippi. It is well known that 
this surpasses that of any other tributary of that great stream. After these 
general considerations we may turn to the examination of the individual factors 
which constitute the climate of a country. 

TEMPERATURE. 

Temperature is influenced both by latitude and elevation. The main body of 
the State of West Virginia lies between the parallel of 37° and 40°. For points 
at the same elevation, this would give a difference of about 3° in the mean annual 
temperature of the southern and northern portions of the State. According to 
Dodge, the State is embraced between the isothermals of 50° and 54°. The 
isothermal of 52° passes nearly through the centre of it. The general elevation 
of the surface renders the mean temperature somewhat lower than that of points 
on the same parallel of latitude in the States further w^est. Within the State 
itself, the greater altitude of the plateau and mountainous portions renders the 
mean temperature of these belts lower than that of the Ohio counties. This 
difference of altitude may be taken on an average to be about 1,500 feet, causing a 
lowering of the mean annual temperature of about 4^° on the same parallel of 
latitude. Hence such elevated counties as Fayette, Nicholas, Raleigh, &c., do not 
possess that higher mean temperature which they should have, in consequence of 
their more southerly position. The isothermals passing through the Mountain 
and Plateau Districts bend strongly up northward. The mean annual temper- 
ature of the State may be taken as 52°. 

RAINFALL AND MELTED SNOW. 

From what has been already said a pretty good idea of the precipitation over 
the State may be gained. The following statistics, though scanty in amount, are 
offered. For Wheeling, observations for 17 years ending 1871, made by Dr. E. A. 
Hildreth, give us the following : 

Spring 10.9 inches. Autumn 9.57 inches. 

Summer 12.93 " Winter 9.36 " 

Year 41-95 inches. 

By the same observer at the same place the following annual average of 
rainy, snowy, *&c., days are given during a period of 27 years : 

r Rainy and snowy days 1 19.81 

For each year.. \ Clear and fair 170. 16 

(.Cloudy 76.28 



WEST VIRGINIA. 101 

He also deduces the mean annual rainfall for the State from observations 
amounting in the aggregate to 103 years to be 39.89 inches. While the above 
estimates for Wheeling may represent fairly the precipitation along the Ohio in 
the north, it cannot be doubted that for the Plateau and Mountain Sections the 
precipitation is greater; but, unfortunately, details from these elevated parts of 
the State are mostly wanting. The rainfall deduced from the records at Morgan- 
town, a point more inland, and near the foot of Laurel Hill, show an unusual 
average of 49.23 inches. As the year 1874 was noted for the heavy summer rains, 
no doubt this is too high, and a mean annual precipitation of 45 inches may be 
taken as near the mark for the more elevated districts. 

The following record from Kanawha Salines was taken for three years and 
three months— from April, 1857, to February, 1861 : 

Spring 12.92 inches. Autumn 16.18 inches. 

Summer 12.03 " Winter ^^-Ji " 

Year 35-75 inches. 

This, without doubt, is above the average, but it would seem that the 
Kanawha River Valley has usually an exceptionally high rainfall. 

For Lewisburg, records kept during six years for the Smithsonian Institution 
show the following results : 

Spring 7.39 inches. Autumn 9.60 inches. 

Summer 9.21 " Winter 9.55 " 

Year 35-75 inches. 

Records kept at the White Sulphur Springs for five years and six months 
show a mean annual rainfall of 37.54 inches. Both of these results are below the 
average of places of the height of Lewisburg and the AVhite Sulphur, w^hich are 
each about 2,000 feet above tide. This is due to the position of these localities. 
They are situated between the Alleghany Mountains on the east and the high 
country of the eastern part of Fayette and Raleigh on the southwest. These 
latter highlands lie in the direct path of the southwest winds, which bring 
moisture into the country, and in passing over them these winds are deprived of 
much of their temperature and vapor. 

AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. 

The following on the soil and productions of West Virginia is from the 
author quoted above : 

The following are the principal soils existing in the State : 

Clay Soils. — These contain 75 per cent, and over of clay. The remaining 35 
per cent, is composed of sand, calcareous, ferruginous, vegetable and other 
matters. In their physical character, when moist, they are stiff and tenacious. 
They dry with difficulty, and are rather slowly warmed by the sun's rays. When 
dry they become baked to a more or less hard mass, and are also, in freezing and 
thawing, more apt to injure the roots of plants than other soils. AYith these 
disadvantages, however, they combine many advantages, and, when properly 
managed, make the best lands for certain crops. Stiff clays such as those just 
described do not make a large proportion of our soils. They are chiefly to be 
found in the eastern and southern parts of the State. 

Sandy Soils contain 75 per cent, and over of sand. The remaining compo- 
nents are clay and the other constituents, except sand, mentioned as occurring in 
clay soils. In their physical characters they are the opposite of clay soils, and 
are much inferior to them. They are loose, thirsty in nature, and do not hold 
manures well. Hence, a mixture of sand and clay in land is beneficial, the one 
correcting the defects of the other. Such strictly sandy lands are comparatively 
rare, and are mainly found in the northeast mountain counties and in the outcrops 
of the sandstones of the cou^lomerate series. 



102 WEST VIRGINIA, 

Loams.— These are composed of clay and sand mixed in about equal propor- 
tions. They contain also various other substances like those found in the two 
above-mentioned soils, making 20 to 25 per cent, of the whole. When clay 
predominates they are called clay loams; when sand, sandy loams; Avhen lime 
forms a large proportion, calcareous loams or marls. These make usually the 
most fertile lands known, since they contain all the elements needed by the plant, 
combined with the best physical condition, uniting as they do the good qualities 
of sandy and clay soils, so far as these arise from the texture and condition of 
tlie land. 

West Virginia is fortunate in having a large proportion of such lands. 
Indeed, they may be said to be the characteristic soils of the country, and to form 
tlie larger part of the surface. The strata of the coal measures above the con- 
glomerate, which covers so large a portion of the area of the State, are peculiarly 
fitted to produce the best class of these, since they consist of shales, argillaceous 
sandstones and layers of limestone or calcareous strata intimately mixed. These 
readily break down under the action of the elements, and give a deep light earth. 
It will not be necessary to specify localities. Even where the rocks under the 
coal strata furnish the material, they are usually so compounded of sandstones 
and shales as, by their disintegration, to produce such soils. 

Calcareous Soils. — These are soils in which lime forms a large constituent, 
mixed with clay, sand and other matters. Such soils are, from their chemical 
composition, among the best that are known. 

In their physical character they resemble more nearly the loams, and are 
especially suited for the production of grass. Of these the State has a large pro- 
portion. As localities Avliere they occur may be mentioned Jefferson and a part 
of Berkeley, which contain the lower Silurian limestone of the " Great Valley," 
with Pocahontas, Greenbrier, Mercer and Monroe containing the sub-carbonif- 
erous limestone and shales. The northern counties on the Ohio with the 
limestone of the upper coal measures belong here also. 

Alluviums. — The alluviums may be divided into two classes, according as 
they are produced by deposits from turbid streams or by slow surface action. 
We may call the first stream allumum, and the second upland allumum. 

Stream alluvium, as is well known, is produced by deposits from streams in 
seasons of flood. Such soils are generally mixtures of all the kinds of matters 
found along the watercourses which deposit them. 

If such deposits are subject to occasional overflow, they receive by this 
means a renewal of their fertilizing components, and will then last indefinitely. 
If not overflowed, such soils must, under continued cultivation, eventually be 
exhausted, provided no return by means of manures be made to them. 

Magnificent soils of this class are found in the State. The "bottom lands" 
along the principal rivers are widely celebrated for their productiveness and for 
the great length of time during which they have been cultivated. Some of these 
have continued without intermission for more than 100 years to make heavy 
yields of that most exhausting of all crops, Indian corn. 

Upland alluvium is produced by the slow action of the surface w^aters 
on the hill slopes. Such action tends to accumulate in the valleys much of the 
fertilizing constituents of the hills, and to carry down to the lower levels much of 
the vegetation which year after 3'ear falls and decays on the higher grounds. 

This has gone on for ages, and has finally produced in the bottoms a soil of 
from one to ten feet and more in depth, which combines in the highest degree all 
the elements of fertility. Were the hillsides formed of slowly decomposing rocks, 
this process would soon leave them bare. In fact, however, the rapidity with 



WEST VIRGINIA. 103 

which they break down and renew the earth prevents this denudation, while not 
checking the accumulation of deep soils in the valleys. 

Upland alluvium is generally more productive than even stream alluvium, 
since it retains nearly all the fertilizing matters which have been slowly accumu- 
lating. On the other hand, stream alluvium, being a deposit from water, has lost 
most of its soluble enriching matters from the greater or less length of time 
during which it has been suspended in water. In consequence of this, these have 
been dissolved and carried off. This superior fertility of the upland alluviums 
explains the great size of the timber which grows on them. 

The large amount of vegetable matter which they contain is one of the most 
important enriching agents. The humus of the hill-slopes gradually works its 
way down, in the lirst place, into the bottoms ; and then, in the second place, the 
conditions of moisture, tfcc, found in such places specially favoring luxuriant 
vegetation, cause large additions from growth on the spot. This, in the dense 
shade, moulders away with extreme slowness. 

From the immense number of hills in this State, the amount of bottom land 
of this kind is very large, that of the streams and uplands together being put by 
some at 30 per cent, of the entire area. 

The present conditions and the prospects of agriculture in West Virginia 
cannot be understood without some explanation. Any present exhibit of her 
productions from the soil would not give a fair idea of her capabilities. It will 
be readily seen that the capacity of no new country can be fairly judged by her 
productions at any given time. Census reports and statistics may afford us data 
to determine the resources of old and well-populated regions, where all the 
branches of industry have adjusted themselves into harmonious working order, 
and each pursuit is maintained by a sufficient body of laborers trained for their 
special calling. This is far from being the case in West Virginia. Almost every 
condition requisite for the present full development of her abundant resources is 
wanting. Her population is sparse; much of her land is still in the primeval 
forests, and her people have not confined their attention to special fields of labor 
and striven to perfect them. There has also been a great deficiency of labor and 
capital. Last, but not least, railways and roads, until of late, have been rare 
within her borders. With respect to this last feature, much has recently been 
done and very much moi-e is projected, so that we may soon hojje to see generally 
introduced into our State that great stimulus to active farming — a ready and cheap 
transportation to market. 

For the general and thorough working of our lands we greatly need an immi- 
gration of industrious settlers. Thousands pass yearly through our State to the 
far West, not knowing that here they can find an abundance of untouched virgin 
land at nominal prices, and with a fertility not surpassed by any which they can 
hope to gain in the remote West. But suppose that lands were higher and poorer 
here, our climate and proximity to the great markets must ever give us a great 
advantage over farmers who, when they make a good crop, find it destroyed at 
one blow by the ravages of insects, by tornadoes or floods of rain, and who, if 
successful in escaping their numerous enemies, find all profits swallowed up in 
charges for transportation to markets which lie at our doors. 

But these are not the only or chief causes which have lessened the amount of 
farm products with us. The way in which the State was settled and the conse- 
quent habits of her inliabitants have been unfavorable to the existence of exten- 
sive or skilled farming, and have directed tlie industry of the people into almost 
every other channel. Tlie original settlers were, to a large extent, men without 
means, who, on entering this country, tlien cut off from all exit to market, were 
content to clear small patches of ground, whose generous response to even poor 



104 WEST VIRGINIA. 

cultivation yielded returns sufficient to supply their limited wants. His little 
" clearing," selected in the most convenient spot, was cultivated by the pioneer 
year after year in corn and vegetables, which served to support his family along 
with a hog or two and possibly a horse and a cow. With fowls and the abundant 
game in the forests around, there was abundance of meat and bread. Even now 
in many parts of the State this is the mode of life. 

When the original clearing was exhausted by long tillage, an addition was 
made by felling more timber. Thus the cleared lands gradually grew around the 
cabins until extensive openings were made, but still without causing attempts at 
establishing communication with the outside world. This independent mode of 
life impressed upon the people habits of thought and action, which, though calcu- 
lated to foster industry, frugality and hardiness, were not most favorable for tjie 
promotion of undertakings which require communication with and dependence 
upon other countries. 

AVe see at the present day the influence of this training. Until of late West 
Virginians have paid but small attention to the raising of agricultural products 
for exportation. They are usually content with the production of a sufficiency 
for home consumption. But rarely is an improved system of farming employed, 
and the cultivation is of the rudest kind. The tendency is to look to other sources 
than the farm for products of exchange. As an example, this spirit has led our 
people along all the streams which can float a raft, to denude the forests of the 
magnificent timber which they afford, often sacrificing it in the most prodigal 
manner. So, too, they turn their attention, when the finer timber has been 
removed, to the getting of tan-bark, hoop-poles, &c., &c., which business occupies 
a very important position among our industries. All of these causes have led to 
a neglect of agriculture and stock farming — industries for which, especially the 
latter, our State is peculiarly fitted. Of course, there are important exceptions, 
especially along the Ohio and in the older counties, as in Greenbrier, in the South 
Branch District, &c.; besides, we are speaking rather of what has been. Of late 
years there has been a marked improvement, and we are being forced into those 
industrial channels which nature intended that we should follow. The opening 
of important lines of railroad has brought capital to develop our coals and iron, 
and the established value of these bids fair to bring other lines within our limits. 
The increased amount of cleared land has given greater impetus to stock raising, 
which has been still farther increased by the dictates of a sounder system of agri- 
culture. This has taught us to keep our hillsides, with their easily washed soils, 
as much in grass as possible, and the ready-money returns which our sheep, wool 
and the cattle purchased in the fields bring us tend strongly in the same direction. 
Again, our people are no longer satisfied with the miserable roads, which have 
been no small obstacle in the way of forming. More attention also is paid to sys- 
tematic farming, although much yet remains to be done in that direction. 

This State at present pays more attention to corn than any other crop. To 
the production of this the soil and climate are well adapted. When the lands pro- 
duce grass, and especially on the calcareous soils, the following rotation has been 
found advantageous: First corn, one or two years; then oats, then wheat, then 
grass — clover, timothy, or both mixed. The land, if ])roductive enough, may be 
grazed during the whole time it is in grass. When the blue-grass grows sponta- 
neously, as it does over most of the State, it tends to overrun meadows, and hence 
foreign grasses, such as clover and timothy, cannot be maintained for any great 
length of time. The farmers on the calcareous soils of the Panhandle say that 
their hills grow grass almost as well as the bottom lands, but on neither can they 
keep timothy longer than five years as the predominant grass. After this period 
blue-grass takes the ground, and this being indigenous, maintains possession 



WEST VIRGINIA. 105 

indefinitely, forming excellent pastures. It is claimed that the land improves so 
Jong as it is in either grass. The blue-grass pasture is again broken up and the 
same routine takes place. The same rotation essentially is followed in other grass 
lands with beneficial results. Rye and barley may be substituted as small grain 
crops. 

In the uplands of the South Branch District of the northeast counties, which 
is a fine grazing region, and produces fine grain and hay in the bottoms, the rota- 
tion of crops is corn, wheat, clover, and occasionally rye or buckwheat. This 
rotation may, perhaps, be taken to represent a good succession for any highland 
grain district. 

As to the character of the crops, fruits, etc., that may be raised within the State, 
it will be easily seen that it must be very varietl. No State has a greater variety 
of soil within certain limits, and few have a greater range of elevation, varying, 
as that of West Virginia does, from 500 feet to 4,000 feet. Between tjje summits 
of the mountains in the northeast and the valley of the Ohio in the southwest 
there is a climatal diff'erence of at least 14°. 

Stock raising is an industry of considerable importance, and in some sections 
is carried on on a large scale— a market for beef cattle being found at Washing- 
ton, Baltimore, Philadelphia and New York. 

COAL. 

The coal area of West Virginia covers 16,000 square miles, or 4,000 square 
miles more than the entire coal area of Great Britain, and a few hundred square 
miles more than the combined coal area of Great Britain, Germany and France. 
It is also over 3,000 square miles greater than the coal area of Pennsylvania. 
These figures will give some conception of the magnitude of the coal territory of 
West Virginia. The development of these interests has been very great within 
the last few years, during which time several railroads have been constructed to 
open up new coal-fields, and others that have been planned with the same object 
in view will shortly be built. In 1876 about 800,000 tons coal were mined in the 
State; in 1881 this had increased to 1,500,000 tons, and again in 1883 to 2,805,000 
tons. The ofiicial statistics for 1884 are not at this writing available, though the 
output is estimated by Saward at 3,000,000 tons. This is probably too small by 
several hundred thousand tons. Thus the amount of coal mined in the State 
doubled from 1876 to 1881, and again doubled from 1881 to 1884. At the present 
time there are about 140 to 150 mines being worked, while new companies with 
large capital are being organized almost every week. The coal mined in this 
State reaches tidewater over the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad, which has erected 
fine coal-piers at Newport News, Va., where a large coal trade is now carried on, 
and over the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad to Baltimore. A large amount of West 
Virginia coal is made into coke in the State and used in the manufacture of iron. 

The following is from M. F. Maury, Esq : 

The coal mining advantages of West Virginia arise from the great number of 
seams found accessible above water level, and from the feet that they contain 
coals of various compositions adapted to all the requirements of trade and manu- 
facture. The fat coking, gassy bituminous, the hard and valuable splint and the 
rich and oily caunel in this highly favored region are found in great purity, and 
made easily accessible to the miner through the agency of running water, which 
has exposed the seams in thousands upon thousands of places, and in consequence 
of this and their size, coal, as a general rule, can be mined cheaper and with more 
economy under the same rates of labor than in any other part of the Alleghany 
Coal-field. 



106 WEST VIRGINIA. 

In fact, when the northern portion of the State was wrinkled into folds, and 
the southern tilted gently from its original horizontal position, water, with its vast 
planing and eroding power, washed off the superincumbent strata and cut and 
counter-cut the country by deep and narrow valleys, thus preparing this field with 
numerous objective points for safe and economical working, for it left vast areas 
of the coal measures above water, accessible at many points by simply removing 
from the outcrops of the seams the alluvium that has formed there by the decay- 
ing work of ages. 

This will more clearly appear by a comparison of the position of the coals 
here and in Great Britain in this respect. There the coal is deep below water 
level, and to reach it requires years of labor and vast sums of money. In its 
great northern coal-field the shafts are rarely less than 150 feet deep, and many 
have the great depth of 1,800 feet, sunk at an expense in some cases of $240,000, 
while the Dukinfield colliery was taken down 2,600 feet at a cost of $500,000, 
mainly to reach the " Black Mine Coal," a seam 4 feet 8^ inches thick. 

Here mighty natural forces have sunk pits which need neither repair or 
renewal. The inclination of the strata, coupled with the laws of gravity, have 
provided the most costless, perfect and permanent pumping machinery ; and the 
perfect ventilation of the mines is but a matter of the most simple and ordinary 
care, as, cxcei)t in one or two instances in the northern portion of the State, there 
are none of those noxious gases to be dealt with which oftentimes render coal 
mining so dangerous. 

There are, however, many districts where the seams are below the surface, 

though easily reached by shafting; but when we consider the number that are 

over three feet thick, and that such an one is workable and yields about 4,800 tons 

per acre, it will be seen that we need not treat of the deeper ones, for we have no 

need to sink shafts at all, as it will be a long time before the cost of winning coals 

from day levels will be so far raised as to necessitate other stj^les of working; and 

West Virginia can justly be proud of the numerous advantages it holds in this 

respect. 

IRON. 

The iron to be found in West Virginia may be divided into two classes : 

1. Those ores which belong to and are found in the Apalachian Coal 
Measures, consisting of brown oxides, carbonates and black bands, and in some 
places nodular red hematite. 

2. Those which belong to the region lying between the eastern escarpment 
of the coal formation and the eastern border of the State, forming a part of the 
great iron belt of the Atlantic States, and consisting of the brown and red hema- 
tites, which are much more rich and abundant than those of the first class. 

IRON ORES OF THE COAL MEASURES. 

Little attention has been paid to the iron of this geological horizon, except in 
the northern counties, where a few small blast furnaces have worked the native 
ores. With these exceptions, as there was generally no cheap and convenient 
outlet, and consequently no great value for this mineral or its product, it has not 
possessed much attraction for the people at large, and but little attention has been 
paid to it. 

A careful geological survey may and no doubt will show that there are more 
workable beds of it than are now known, and, in fact, within the last few years 
most valuable seams of black band ores have been uncovered, the presence of 
which was not thought of before. 

With but one exception, (in Jackson County,) so far as examinations go, it is 
only the lower coal measures and the lower barren measures that in West Vir- 



WEST VIRGINIA. 107 

ginia contain workable beds of ore, which may be divided into carbonates and 
black bands. 

Black Band Iron Ore. — This is nothing more than a carbonate of iron of a 
more or less black color, by reason of an admixture of bituminous matter. So 
far as yet known, it is confined entirely to the southern part of the State, where 
it has been discovered only within the last few years. From the fact of its very 
often resembling black slate in its structure, it may often have been passed over 
unnoticed, and careful search will no doubt show it in many places where it is not 
now suspected. 

It is a class of material that makes an excellent iron and from which much 
of the celebrated Scotch pig is smelted. It possesses an especial value from the 
fact that in many cases a low grade ore can be roasted into a higher grade. For 
instance, take that from Davis Creek, in Kanawha County. Where mined it con- 
tains 33 per cent, of metallic iron and 26 per cent, of carbonaceous matter. By 
piling it in heaps and setting fire thereto, the carbonaceous matter is burnt out, 
and in the process of combustion, generates enough heat to convert tne carbonate 
of iron in the ore into a richer oxide, so that the mass, after being thus roasted, 
analyzes 65 per cent, of metallic iron. 

Unfortunately, we can never reckon or depend upon any seam of it continu- 
ing of a uniform value, for in one place it will contain an ore well worth working, 
while half a mile off it may become so mixed with slate or earthy impurities as to 
be utterly valueless. As an example: On Bell Creek, Fayette County, an excel- 
lent bed about four feet thick was found by Mr. L Bemelmans, of Charleston. 
Some two or three miles from this place, up a ravine a short distance below the 
mouth of Bell, the same seam show^ed only 12 to 14 inches of the good material ; 
while on Little Elk Run of Gauley River, some three miles to the north, the 
results of two analyses from the same seam gave only 5 and 7 per cent, respect- 
ively of metallic iron. If we search for it in another direction, it may open to a 
very valuable deposit. From this irregularity and from the fact that it has been 
well proven in this field, it will be readily understood that careful search may find 
it in many places where it has never yet been noticed, and wherever it is found in 
workable quantity its presence adds great value to the land. 

Carbonate of Iron. — Under this head may also be classed the brown hematites 
of the coal measures, as they are merely the results of the decomposition of the 
carbonates, and, in fact, when a seam of the former is discovered, we may expect 
it to turn into the latter as soon as we go tar enough under ground to get beyond 
atmospheric influences. 

We see the result of this decomposition in the pieces of brown oxide that are 
found on the hills in every portion of the State. These have led to many erro- 
neous ideas as to the richness of certain localities in this mineral, which came 
originally from the carbonates of iron existing in the beds that were once super- 
imposed upon the present strata, and have long since been worn away by erosion. 
As this took place the lighter materials were washed off by the currents, while the 
heavier ore settled down and was left resting on our hillsides. Sometimes a great 
deal was deposited in one place and the soil is full of it, while in others but a 
single lump was left, and hence it is that on manj" of our mountains we find the 
" blossom" of good ore, and yet have no bed of it near by. 

Like the black band, the seams of carbonate of iron are quite variable, so that 
in one locality they will be workable, while in another they may have thinned 
down or degenerated so much from an admixture of earthy impurities as to be 
worthless. They usually contain more or less carbonate of lime, which is of much 
importance in the blast furnace in helping to flux out ftny earthy impurities that 
may be present. 



108 WEST VIRGINIA. 

By rouisting, the carbouic acid of this ore is driven otf, and the mass is con- 
verted into the red oxide. As the former, when pure, contains 48.3 per cent, of 
iron, and the latter 70 per cent., it will at once be perceived that a thorough burn- 
ing will raise the percentage so that an ore of low grade can often be roasted to a 
higher one — a very fortunate circumstance, as otherwise many of our seams would 

be too poor to be of value. 

SALT. 

Rich as is "West Virginia in coal, iron, timber, &c., she is scarcely less rich in 
that indispensable necessity to human health and comfort and to animal life — 
common salt. Fossil or rock salt has not been found in the State, but salt brines 
of greater or less strength and in greater or less abundance are found by artesian 
borings at greater or less depth throughout the Apalachian Coal-field, which 
underlies the greater portion of our State. 

The strength of these brines varies in different localities and in different wells 
in the same locality. Tiie range may be stated at say 6° to 12° by the salometer, 
Baume scale, (distilled water being 0°, saturation 25°,) but the average strength of 
the brines from which salt is now made is about 8° to 10°. The value of these 
brines depends, of course, upon their location as regards accessibility and cheap 
transportation of the products to market, as well as the convenient proximity of 
cheap coal for fuel and timber for barrels. Only locations on the navigable rivers 
or Imes of railways at present fulfill these indications ; but as population increases 
and new routes of travel and traffic are opened up, it is probable that new salt 
manufacturing localities will be developed. 

The principal points at which salt has been manufactured in the State are 
Charleston, on the Great Kanawha River ; from West Columbia to Hartford City, 
on the Ohio River; at Bulltown, on the Little Kanawha; at Louisa, on the Big 
Sandy ; in Mercer County, on New River ; near Birch of Elk River, and at some 
other less important points, for local use. 

TIMBER. 

The following on the Timber Resources of West Virginia is from "The Vir- 
gmias.' of Lynchburg, Va : 

The forests of West Virginia, with the exception of the belt of pine and 
spruce confined to the high ridges of tho Alleghany Mountains, is principally 
composed of broad-leaved trees, the most important of which are the white and 
chestnut oak, the black walnut, the yellow poplar and the cherry. The white pine 
and spruce forests reach within this State their southern limit as important 
sources of lumber supply. 

The forests have been largely removed from the counties bordering the Ohio 
River, and the most valuable hard-wood timber adjacent to the principal streams, 
especially black walnut, cherry and yellow poplar, has been culled in nearly every 
part of the State. But slight inroads, however, have yet been made into the 
magnificent body of hard-wood timber covering the extreme southern counties, 
which stih contain vast quantities of oak, cherry and p(^i)lar. 

The black walnut found scattered everywhere in West Virginia is least plen- 
tiful in the northwestern and Ohio River counties, and most nbundant along the 
upper waters of the rivers flowing into the Ohio through the southwestern part 
of the State. Yellow poplar is found throughout the State, and is still abundant 
about the headwaters of nearly all the principal streams. Large bodies of cherry 
are found in Greenbrier, Nicholas, Webster and otlier counties immediately west 
ot the mountains, and a large amount of hemlock is scattered through the valleys 
and ravines of the northeastern part of the State and along the western slopes of 
the Alleghanies. The area still occupied by the wkite pine is estimated to extend 



WEST VIRGINIA. 109 

over 310 square miles and to contain about 990,000,000 feet of merchantable 
lumber. The principal centers of lumber manufacture are along the Kauawha 
River, at Ronceverte, in Greenbrier County, at Parkersburg, and ah)ng the upper 
Potomac. 

Partial returns of the hoop-pole industry gave a production during the census 
year of 3,549,000, valued at $140,000. 

During the census year 476,775 acres of wood were reported destroyed by 
fire, Avith a loss of $155,280. Of these fires the largest number was traced to the 
careless clearing of land for agricultural purposes, although many had their origin 
in sparks from locomotives. 

The manufacture of cooperage stock is fast increasing in importance, and 
seems destined, with the exhaustion of more accessible hard-wood forests of the 
country, to assume a much greater development than at present. Large quanti- 
ties of black walnut, yellow poplar and oak in the log are shipped to Northern 
markets and to Europe. 

The following notes upon the forests of West Virginia are extracted from 
Mr. Pringle's report : " Entering West Virginia at Keyser (New Creek) by way of 
Cumberland, Md., we find ourselves in one of the narrow valleys lying among the 
low, abrupt ridges of the northern Alleghanies, among which we have been trav- 
eling since we reachea the vicinity of Williamsport, Pa. Coming south from 
Middle Pennsylvania, however, the forest growth covering the long mountain 
chains within view of the railroad becomes heavier and heavier, the evidence of 
fire and axe largely disappearing. On the hills above Keyser fewer evergreens 
appeared than I had previously seen. A few slopes w^ere principally occupied by 
pine in variety, but the mountains of this region were covered with a growth of 
deciduous trees — white, black, red, Spanish and chestnut oaks, hickories, butter- 
nuts, black walnuts, yellow poplars, locusts, elms, sugar maples, etc. At Piedmont 
some $200,000 have been expended in the construction of a boom on the North 
Branch of the Potomac. At this point, as well as at Swanton and Deer Park, on 
the Maryland side, there are mills sawing chiefly white oak, and also considerable 
white pine, spruce, hemlock, poplar, white ash, etc. Some spruce which had not 
been seen or heard of in the timber belt of Pennsylvania is found 20 miles above 
Piedmont. The market for lumber manufactured here is chiefly eastward. Much 
of the oak is sent to Europe, partly in the form of squared timber, partly cut 5 by 
12 inches and from 15 to 20 feet long. The mills at Swanton and Deer Park are 
located on the railroad, and cut timber is hauled to them from the vicinity. The 
mills at Piedmont are fed by logs driven down the river from the western portion 
of Mineral and Grant Counties, W. Va. This lumber is chiefly spruce, oak and 
hemlock. Great difficulty is experienced in driving this part of the Potomac, as 
it is a swift and rocky stream. Logs, especially oak, constantly lodge on the rocks 
or bank, and there has been great difficulty in maintaining the boom and dam at 
this point. 

"Rowlesburg, in Preston County, owes its existence as a lumber depot to tlie 
fact that the Cheat River, upon which it is situated, as it passes through the Briery 
Mountains for a distance of 25 miles below this point, has so narrow and rocky a 
channel and so swift a current that it is not possible to get the logs further down 
the stream. Above Rowlesburg the stream is good to drive, and any one of its 
branches can be driven from a point 125 miles above that point. From the mouth 
of Black Fork, 30 miles above, the timber is brought down in rafts rather than as 
separate logs. This is because there is no boom as yet at Rowlesburg to stop the 
logs. There are small booms on Black and Shaver Forks, many miles above 
Rowlesburg. Scattered along the river above Rowlesburg there are a few small 
mills, the product of which is floated down the stream on rafts. The timber of 



110 WEST VIRGINIA. 

Preston County, between Rowlesburg and the vicinity of the mouth of the river, 
is oak, poplar, chestnut, ash, beech, birch, hemlock, basswood and hickory. 

" The timber of Canaon Valley, in Tucker and Randolph Counties, is largely 
hemlock on the lower lands ; on the higher situations and slopes, sugar maple and 
beech, and as soon as a suitable elevation is reached, spruce is mingled with black 
cherry. In other portions of Tucker County and on the tributaries of Cheat 
River flowing out of Randolph County, the timber is chiefly oak, poplar, ash, 
spruce, cherry, black walnut, white pine, etc. This, however, is not a black 
walnut region, and there are here nowhere more than scattered trees ; a careful 
search has failed to find any great body of this timber here. It is estimated that 
2,500,000 feet of yellow poplar are still standing in the valleys of the Cheat and 
its tributaries. 

*' Shaver Fork is heavily timbered with spruce. A boom has been constructed 
at Grafton, on Tygart Valley River, a main branch of the Monongahela. It is a 
rough stream, unfavorable for lumber operations, and for a distance only of 10 
miles above Grafton is it smooth enough to admit of the passage of rafts. All 
lumber has, therefore, to come down in separate logs, and only such kinds as are 
light enough to float well can be got down. For this reason there is very little 
except poplar sawed at Grafton. Oak is too heavy to be driven successfully, and 
as it cannot be tied up in rafts with poplar, as is done on the Cheat, the stores of 
oak timber growing in the valleys drained by this river must wait for the building 
of a railroad to bring tliem to market. The yellow poplar still standing in this 
region is estimated at 300,000,000 feet, and on the higher grounds, especially about 
the headwaters of streams, there are fine bodies of black cherry mixed with 
other trees. 

" At Parkersburg are located the mill and shops of the Parkersburg Mill 
Company, situated on the banks of the Little Kanawha, a short distance above 
the confluence with the Ohio. This is the only company operating in lumber 
within the city of Parkersburg. It manufactures about 0,000,000 feet of lumber 
annually, mostly poplar, some oak, and a quarter of a million feet of beech. 
Little black can be now obtained here, and that of inferior quality. Rough 
lumber and manufactured articles of wood find a ready market in every direction 
West, North and East. I was astonished and delighted to see how closely the 
lumber was worked up, and the great variety of articles manufactured from slabs, 
edgings, calls, etc., which are in other mills so generally thrown into the waste 
pile. Broom handles, corn-popper handles, brush handles, brush heads, tool 
handles of many descriptions and fly-trap bottoms are but a few of the articles 
that are turned out b}' millions from odd bits of wood, few of Miiich are too small 
to make something or other from. The company executes orders for articles used 
in manufactories widely distributed over the country from Cincinnati and Chicago 
to Boston and New York. Poplar is used for broom handles, and beech, maple, 
sycamore, black walnut, cherry, etc., for the smaller articles. This company does 
not own and operate timber lands, but buys its logs from parties who deliver rafts 
at its mills. Formerly much lumber was wasted in this region in clearing farms, 
but now proprietors of land find it to their advantage to cut and saw their logs, 
which they bring down in rafts themselves, or sell to parties who make a business 
of rafting. Once out of the small streams, the logs are easily rafted down the 
Little Kanawha during favorable seasons. There are no booms on the Little 
Kanawha, except temporary constructions for special purposes, which are broken 
up by every flood. Several years ago it was supposed that the timber on this river 
was nearly exhausted, but it continues to come down in undiminished quantities 
to the value of some hundred thousand dollars annually, in addition to railroad 
ties, staves, etc. It is oidy about 40 miles up the main river and no great distance 



WEST VIRGINIA. Ill 

back from the stream that the supplj of oak Is exhausted. The river is 100 miles 
long, and about its upper waters and those of its tributaries the oak is compara- 
tively untouched. 

" Much of Wirt County and the greater part of Roane, Calhoun and Gilmer, 
in the upper part of the valley of Little Kanawha, is a vast virgin forest of oak 
and poplar, containing a good deal of black walnut and sugar maple and some 
black cherry, Braxton County is magnificently timbered, as is Webster, although 
the timber here is as yet inaccessible. 

" The Guyandotte is a good river for lumbering operations. Rafts can come 
down from a point 100 miles from its mouth. Tliere are yet no booms on this 
river, except strings of logs occasionally stretched across it for temporary pur- 
poses. On its course above Guyandotte Station are four or five mills doing, for 
the most part, a local business, their product for export being only about 1,030,000 
feet of sawed lumber. The rafting of this sawed lumber is attended with some 
risk of loss, and therefore a greater amount is brought down in unsawcd logs 
bound together in rafts, which are taken down the Ohio and sold to the various 
mills along its course. These rafts are usually made 11 logs wide, and three or 
four of these courses are placed end to end. White oak is made up into rafts with 
a poplar log in the center of each course, and the raft is made light enough to 
float easily. Along the Guyandotte, in the lower part of its course, oaks and 
poplars have been cut for a distance of from one to two miles from the stream, 
the black walnut for some five miles back ; but nine-tenths of the area drained by 
this river is still in original forest, composed of white, chestnut and other oaks, 
poplar, walnut, several hickories, beech, sugar maples, sycamore, ash, etc. In this 
region there is, in the aggregate, a good deal of black walnut, but it exists as scat- 
tered trees rather than in groves or tracts. 

*' Coal River is 160 miles long, and for 36 miles, or to Pletona, is navigable for 
barges. The valley of this river is covered with truly magnificent forests, in 
which the trees of the several species composing them attain remarkable dimen- 
sions. Poplar and white oak here exist in nearl}^ equal proportions, and together 
constitute about a third of the timber. Besides these, there is a good deal of black 
cherry, lin and locust, as well as hemlock, the latter not being considered valuable 
in this country. Black walnut appears more abundant in this region than in any 
other of similar extent of which I have yet heard. But little timber has yet been 
removed from the valley of this river, and it is chiefly the lower portion and the 
immediate vicinity of the banks which have been lumbered. 

"The Elk River empties in the Kanawha at Charleston. About two miles 
above its mouth are located a boom and several saw mills, and here are also a dam 
and lock which secure slack water for some 2) miles. The river is about 180 
miles in length. Logs have been driven from a point 150 miles above its mouth, 
but its valley has only been lumbered to any great extent in the immediate vicin- 
ity of the main river, and to a distance of some 110 miles from its mouth. ^lost 
of the original growth of the forest of the Elk basin still remains, and is composed 
largely of white oak, hickory, chestnut and poplar. Black walnut here, as every- 
where else in this State, is scattered, although it is estimated that 10,000,000 feet 
of lumber still remain in this region. Above a certain altitude and about the 
upper waters of this river considerable black cherr}', sugar maple and birch is 
found; here also beech and basswood abound; by the streams hemlock occurs, 
and on the mountains a little black spruce. About the upper settlements on this 
river miles of fence constructed with boards of black cherry and farms fenced 
with black walnut rails may be seen. Formerly large numbers of coal boats and 
salt boats were built up Elk River. Once also the salt works of the Kanawha 
required vast numbers of barrels f these were made of black as well as white oak. 



112 WEST VIRGIN I A. 

Now but five of the sixt)^ furnaces once boiling brine in this vicinity are in opera- 
tion, and there is little demand for black oak for staves. The country along the 
Kanawha between the Elk and the Gauley Rivers has been lumbered for five or 
six miles back from the streams, and about one-fourth of the timber has been cut 
from these valleys. 

•* The Gauley River, with its several large tributaries, drains a valley which 
covers nearly 5,000 square miles. Its length is about 110 miles — much less than 
that of Elk.wliich is a long slender stream — but it occupies a much broader valley 
and has twice the volume of water of the Elk. Unlike the rivers just considered, 
which wear out for themselves smooth channels through the soft sandstone, the 
Gauley is a rough stream, tumbling ra}iidly over hard conglomerate, its bed being 
full of bowlders and ledges. For the first 10 miles from its mouth the fall averages 
four feet to the mile, while its upper waters are so swift and rough as to be 
unnavigable even for small boats. For these reasons the Gaulej^ does not admit 
of the passing of rafts, and it is a ditficult river upon which even to drive single 
logs. Its valley is but little settled, except on Meadow River and along its right 
bank below that stream. Above a point 15 miles from its mouth no timber has 
been touched except by the few settlers. In the lower part of the valley of the 
Gauley, for 15 or more miles, the timber is chiefly oak, poplar, walnut, etc. The 
Gauley and its large afliuents, the Cherry, Cranberry and Williams Rivers, all head 
back in the forests of black spruces, which sometimes take entire possession of 
the mountain tops. A little lower, yet often mingled with the spruce, cherry trees 
so predominate over others as to have given their name to the stream. Here are 
trees often four feet in diameter. The region intermediate between the lower 
and the upper districts of tlie Gauley thus described contains much beech, sugar 
maple and black cherry. The white oak, which abounds in the lower basin of 
this river, disappears above an altitude of 2,000 feet. I was informed that 
although lumbering operations were but lately begun on the Gauley, nearly 
1,000,000 feet of poplar were brought out of the river in 1879, and that it had 
yielded 50,000 feet of l)lack walnut in 1880, while there were now in the river 
poplar logs enough to .make 3,000,000 feet of lumber. About one-fourth of the 
cut of late years has been sawed at mills near the falls; the rest is rafted to 
Charleston. 

" The valley of the New River is only lumbered for from three to five miles 
from the stream, although the walnut has been gathered 10 miles farther back. 
This is a rough country in which to lumber, since the streams cut deep into the 
earth, and New River cannot be driven. 

"Roncfeverte is situated on the Greenbrier River at a point where the Chesa- 
peake and Ohio Railway first meets this stream as it descends from the Alleghany 
Mountains. Here is the St. Lawrence Boom Compau}', and here are located three 
or four lumber firms operating steam mills. One of these, the New York Hoop 
Company, uses 2,000,000 hoop poles per annum, chiefiy hickory, manufacturing 
hoops for flour barrels, pork barrels, hogsheads and tierces, besides hoops for 
boxes, etc. The process of manufacturing hoops was explained to me as follows: 
The poles of assorted lengths and sizes are passed through machines which split 
each of them into two, three or four pieces, and these are put through other 
machines which plane flat the inner side of each strip, leaving the bark intact. 
The hoops thus made are tied into bundles and shipped to New York. 

"The Greenbrier River rises in the limestone sinks of Pocahontas County, 
whence it flows southwesterly through the fertile limestone valley between the 
Alleghany and the Greenbrier Mountains for a distance of 120 miles, emptying 
into the New River at Hinton. Flowing through such a valley it is not a rapid 
stream, but from a point 12 miles below Travelers' Rest, on its headwaters, it is 



WEST VIRGINIA. 113 

fine for rafting. Yet the stream needs some improvement, especially by the closing 
up of back channels into which the logs are borne by high water, to be left in 
swamps when the flood recedes. 

" Only a small proportion of the timber of the Greenbrier River has been 
removed as yet, and it has been estimated that in its valley white oak, white nine, 
poplar, cherry, hemlock, walnut and ash enough remain to make 1,000,000,000 feet 
of boards, and that there are not less than 500,000,000 feet of white pine in this 
region, occupying a belt through the center of both Greenbrier and Pocahontas 
Counties. The eastern limit of the black spruce belt, on the headwaters of Elk 
and Gauley Rivers, the most extensive and valuable in West Virginia, coincides 
with the western limits of the white pine belt lying in Pocahontas County. From 
this point its western line runs through the center of Webster County to the 
vicinity of Huttonville, in Randolph County, the northern end of the belt cover- 
ing the upper waters of Shaver Fork of the Cheat River. Over this belt black 
spruce is scattered more or less densely, sometimes occupying almost exclusively 
the high slopes, particularly the northern slopes and the summits of the mountains. 

" It is believed that over 10,000,000 feet of black walnut in paying quantities 

could still be gathered in this part of the State, and that there would then be left 

an equal amount so scattered that it could be profitably collected at present 

prices." 

MANUFACTURES. 

The natural resources and advantages for manufacturing possessed by West 
Virginia can hardly be surpassed by any State in the Union. The mineral and 
timber wealth of the State is enormous — coal, iron ore and the most valuable 
kinds of timber being found in almost inexhaustible abundance. These vast 
resources are attracting increased attention from year to year, and the industrial 
progress of the State is very rapid, notwithstanding the fact that transportation 
facilities are still too limited, although there is a steady improvement going on in 
this direction through the building of new railroads. West Virginia seems 
destined to be the center of enormous manufacturing and mining interests within 
the next few years, so boundless are her mineral and timber interests, and Penn- 
sylvania itself will hardly be more widely known for its industrial interests than 
West Virginia. 

In 1880, according to the census reports, there were 2,375 manufacturing 
establishments in this State, having an aggregate capital of $13,883,390, which 
turned out in that year $22,867,127 of manufactured products. The three leading 
industries in the State were iron and steel manufacture, flour and grist mills and 
lumber mills. These figures, however, give but little idea of the present position 
of manufactures, for during the last five years since the census figures were gath- 
ered there has been a wonderful development of the State's industrial interests. 
In the manufacture of nails West Virginia ranks as one of the leading States in 
the Union, Wheeling being the center of a great nail-making district. The sub- 
stitution of steel for iron nails, now going on in all parts of the country, has 
necessitated the changing of a number of the Wheeling mills into steel nail mills, 
and the erection of very expensive steel-making plants. The Wheeling nail 
makers have been among the leaders in this great change, and have made heavy 
outlays for the new plants needed. West Virginia probably turns a greater pro- 
portion of the pig iron made within her borders into manufactured products than 
any of the States south of her. As already stated, the timber wealth of the State 
is enomious, and while lumbering operations are being carried on quite exten- 
sively, yet the vast forests of hard woods have been but very slightly depleted, 
and in many parts of the State they are still untouched. In the aggregate value 



114 WEST VIRGINIA. 

of manufactured products, however, the himber mills probably rank second, being 
exceeded only by the iron and steel interests. 

When the great natural resources of the State are considered, West Viro-Lnia 
is, comparatively speaking, very backward in manufacturing interests; but it 
should be remembered that the population of the State is not large, and that 
many of the inhabitants live in sections purely agricultural and not yet pene- 
trated by railroads. In this view. West Virginia has really already accomplished 
wonders in the manufacturing line, and her future progress will assuredly be very 

rapid. 

MINERAL AVATERS. 

As a scientist might infer from the general geological character of West Vir- 
ginia, and especially from the chemical character of her abounding minerals, 
numerous medicinal waters are found to exist in the State, some of which have 
been well and fully tested for many years, and are equal or superior to any other 
waters of their class found in any portion of the world. 

West Virginia comprises within her southern and southeastern border a large 
portion of the celebrated mineral spring plaza long known as the "Spring Region 
of Virginia," and which for the last 80 or 90 years has been greatly resorted to by 
the seekers of health and pleasure of every great section of the United States. 
The widely known White Sulphur Springs are located in Greenbrier County, in 
this State. 

EDUCATIONAL. 

The State has an efficient system of free schools, the teachers of which are 
trained by State Normal Schools. Numerous private schools of a high order are 
located at different points throughout the State. 



NORTH CAROLINA. 



The State of North Carolina has a population, according to the estimate of 
the Department of Agriculture in 1883, of 1,500,000. Classified by the census 
according to sex, there were in 1880, 687,908 males and 711,842 females; by race, 
867,242 whites, 531,267 colored people, 1,230 Indians, and one Japanese. The 
aggregate population consisted of 270,994 families, living in 264,305 dwellings. 
The number of persons to a square mile was 28.81, the number of families 5.58, 
dwellings 5.44; the number of acres of land to a person 22.21, to a family 114.73; 
the number of persons to a dwelling 5.30, to a family 5.17. Distributed according 
to topography, 421,157 of the population live on the South Atlantic coast, 743,739 
on the interior plateaus and table-lands, and 233,654 in the mountain districts. 
According to the same distribution, 203,711 colored people live on the South 
Atlantic coast, 300,236 on the interior table-lands, and 27,270 in the mountain dis- 
tricts. The area of the State is 48,580 square miles. There are 94 counties in the 
State. The county of least area is New Hanover, with 80 square miles and 21,376 
population. There are two counties that are equal in the number of square 
miles — Wake and Robeson — the largest areas in the State. The population of the 
former is 47,939; of the latter, 23,880. The capital of the State— Raleigh— is 
situated in Wake. Towns of population of 4,000 and upward are: Charlotte, 
7,094 ; New Berne, 6,443 ; Raleigh, 9,265 ; Wilmington, 17,350— the latter a seaport 
of considerable consequence. 

The State of North Carolina is bounded on the north by Yu'ginia, east by the 
Atlantic Ocean, south by South Carolina, and west by Tennessee. It is included 
nearly between the parallels 34° and 36|° north latitude, and between the meri- 
dians 75^° and 84^° west longitude. The extreme length of the State fi'om east 
to west is 503|- miles. Its average breadth is 100 miles; its extreme breadth is 
187i miles. Its topography may be best conceived by picturing to the mind's eye 
the surface of the State as a vast declivity, sloping down from the summits of the 
Smoky Mountains — an altitude of 7,000 feet — to tlie level of the Atlantic Ocean. 
The Smoky Mountains constitute a part of the great Apalachian chain, which here 
attains its greatest height — the greatest, indeed, in the United States east of the 
Rocky Mountains. This slope is made up of three wide, extended terraces, if that 
term may be allowed. The first, a high mountain plateau, distinguished as the 
Western or Mountain Section ; the second, a sub-montane plateau, distinguished 
as the Middle Section, of which the western half is further distinguished as the 
Piedmont Section; the third, the Atlantic plain, distinguished as the Low Country 
or Eastern Section, and that part from the head of the tides downward as the 
Tidewater Section. From the first to the second section there is a sharp descent 
through a few miles only of not less than 1,500 feet; from the Middle to the Low 
Country, a descent of about 200 feet ; through the two latter, however, there is a 
constant downward grade. 

The State is traversed by two ranges of mountains. The first, the Blue 
Ridge, a grand and lofty chain, which, conforming to the trend of the Smoky 



116 NORTE CAROLINA. 

Mountains and that of the coast line, runs in a direction N. E. and S. W entirely 
across the State. The Brushy and the South Mountains are bold offshoots of this 
chain. The second, the Occoneeche and Uwharrie Mountains, a range of much 
inferior elevation, whose rounded summits and sloping outlines present them- 
selves in forms alike graceful and pleasing, crosses the State in a parallel direction 
near its centre. 

The State is watered by numerous rivers, many of which have their rise on 
the flanks of the Blue Ridge. Those which flow west empty into the Mississippi, 
breaking their way through the Smoky Mountains, plunging headlong for miles 
through chasms from 3,000 to 4,000 feet in depth, the walls of which are perpen- 
dicular to the height of 1,000 feet. Of those which rise on the eastern flank, only 
one — the Roanoke — reaches the sea within the borders of the State. The rest, 
following the line of the softest rock, meander first towards the northeast, then 
sweeping round with bold curves, flow to the sea through South Carolina. The 
principal rivers which reach the sea within the State limits take their rise in the 
northern part of the Middle Section, and on the eastern flank of the Occoneeche 
range, near its northern termination; and of these, only one— the Cape Fear — 
flows directly into the ocean. Many of the rivers in every part of the State are 
noble streams in their middle course. Some of those that flow into the sounds 
swell to majestic proportions, spreading out to a width of from three to five miles. 
The eastern rivers are navigable from 50 to 150 miles. 

By reference to the mean parallels of latitude of the United States, it will be 
seen that North Carolina is situated nearly midway of the Union ; and inasmuch 
as those States lie entirely within the temperate zone, it follows that North Caro- 
lina is situated upon the central belt of that zone. This position gives to the 
State a climate not excelled by any in the world. The average rainfall throughout 
the State is 53 inches, which is pretty uniformly distributed through the year. 

Dr. Kerr, in his geological report, classes the climate of the different sections 
of North Carolina with reference to their isothermal ranges, as follows : *' Middle 
and Eastern North Carolina correspond to Middle and Southern France, and 
Western North Carolina to Northern France and Belgium ; and all the climates 
of Italy, from Palermo to Milan and Venice, are represented." 

For a thorough understanding, it will be necessary to take a survey of the 
difi'erent sections more in detail. It has been seen that the divisions of the State 
are founded on natur<il and physical peculiarities. 

EASTERN SECTION. 

The whole eastern portion of the State belongs to the quarternary system, 
with frequent exposure along the rivers, ravines and ditches of the eocene and 
miocene epochs of the tertiary. It consists of a vast plain stretching from the 
sea coast into the interior of the country — a distance of from 100 to 125 miles. 
Traversing this section from north to south are tracts of country which vary little 
from a perfect level. The Wilmington and Weklon Railroad has a stretch of 40 
miles where there is neither curve, excavation nor embankment. From east to 
west the surface rises by easy gradations at the rate of a little more than a foot to 
the mile. The rise, however, is not perceptible to the traveler. But, though level 
in parts, it is, in general, relieved by slight undulations. In its extreme western 
part — in the county of Moore — it attains an elevation of above 500 feet. 

The western boundary may be roughly defined by a line extending from the 
western part of Warren through Franklin, Wake, Cumberland, Chatham, Moore, 
Montgomery and Anson. This line marks what, at an early period of the earth's 
history, was a line of sea beach. Over this whole section the primitive rocks are 
covered with a deep stratum of earth, principally sand. Along the western border 



NORTH CAROLINA 117 

there is a broad belt of unequal width, but generally from 30 to 40 miles across, 
where granite, slate and other rocks are sparingly distributed ; they are also found 
near watercourses in the exterior of this section. 

The upland soil is, for the most part, a sandy loam, easily accessible to the 
sun's rays, easily worked, and very productive in the crops there cultivated. 
There are, however, extensive areas of country where sand predominates to such 
a degree that the surface, to a considerable depth, is a bed of white sand; yet this 
kind of land is the favorite habitat of the long-leaf pine. When cleared it yields 
good crops of corn and cotton for a few years without manure, aud always with 
slight help from proper commercial fertilizers. There are other extensive areas 
where clay enters so largely into the soil as to form a clay loam. The counties on 
the north side of Albemarle Sound— a very fertile tract of country— are examples 
of this class. The alluvial lands of this section— lands always in the highest 
degree productive, from the fact that all the elements of fertility are intimately 
intermingled by having been once suspended in water— are of unusual extent and 
importance. The grain grown there supplies food not only for people of other 
parts of the State, but large populations in other States. 

Another class of land remains to be mentioned which will be a resource of 
inestimable value in time, perhaps not distant. Bordering on the sea and sounds 
are extensive tracts of country designated as swamps. Though so called, they 
differ widely in their characteristic features from an ordinary swamp. They are 
not alluvial tracts; neither are they subject to overflow. The land covered by 
many of them lies, for the greater part, quite low. But this remark seldom applies 
wholly to any of them ; to some it does not apply at all. On the contrary, many of 
them occupy the divides or water-sheds between the rivers and sounds, and are 
elevated many feet above the adjacent rivers, of which they are the sources. 
These latter are susceptible of drainage, and, when reclaimed, have every element 
of the most exuberant and lasting fertility. 

Throughout this entire section, cotton, corn, oats, sorghum, peas, potatoes, 
(especially sweet potatoes,) are the staple crops. Upon the rich alluvions and the 
reclaimed lake and swamp lands, corn, with peas planted in the intervals between 
the corn, forms the exclusive crop. Occasionally, on the broad low-grounds of 
the Roanoke, wheat is grown to a considerable extent. In the counties on the 
north of Albemarle Sound it is one of the staple crops. On the low-grounds of 
the lower Cape Fear rice has long been the staple crop, and during recent years 
its culture has been extended northward along the low-lying lands of the rivers 
and sounds. The upland variety of rice has been introduced within a few years 
past with entire success. The cultivation of jute also has been the subject of 
experiment with like success, and it only needs proper encouragement to be 
grown to any extent. This section is everywhere underlaid with marl— a mixture 
of carbonate of lime and clay, formed by the decomposition of the imbedded 
shells— sufficient in quantity, when raised and applied to the surface, to bring it 
to a high pitch of fertility and maintain it so. Its metallic substances will be else- 
where noticed. 

If the indications of nature are to be relied on, North Carolina was plainly 
marked out as the land for vineyards. Some of the finest wine grapes of the 
United States— the Scuppernong, the Isabella, the Catawba and the Lincohi— are 
native to this State. 

All the cultivated fruits and berries grow here in great perfection, with the 
exception of the apple. This, though by no means an inferior fruit, is yet not 
equal in size and flavor to that of the Middle and Western Sections. Among the 
swamps the cranberry is found in profusion. The melons are of every variety 
and of peculiar excellence. 



118 NORTH CAROLINA. 

An industry peculiar to this section is what is known as the " trucking busi- 
ness." It consists in rearing fruits and vegetables for the Northern markets. The 
principal centres are Goldsboro and Newbern ; but it is probable that the farmers 
along the line of the Norfolk and Edenton Railroad will become successful com- 
petitors for this business. All the conditions for success are found there — a fertile 
soil and quick transportation. 

Each section of the State embraces a great number of trees largely used in 
building and the domestic arts not mentioned here. In speaking of the timber 
trees of this section, the first place is due to the long-leaf pine. It is the most 
valuable of all trees. The cypress is next in importance. It is found everywhere 
in the swamps of the eastern part of this section. The margins of the swamps 
only have been cleared. Beyond this margin is an immense forest of these trees 
which has been scarcely encroached upon. Its height is from 60 to 100 feet, with 
a circumference above its swollen base of from 20 to 30 feet — often much larger. 
The white cedar, commonly called juniper, is also abundant in the swamps. The 
live oak, so highly prized for ship-building, is found all along the coast, though 
most abundant from Hatteras southward. It is commonly 40 to 50 feet high and 
one to two feet through the trunk. 

The mainland terminates not at the sea, but at large bodies of water termed 
sounds. These sounds are properly narrow seas. They are separated from the 
ocean by a barrier of sand called " The Banks," which stretches along the whole 
coast, except at Beaufort and at the mouth of the Cape Fear. Between these 
sounds and the ocean are a few narrow passes termed inlets. The largest of these 
sounds are Pamlico and Albemarle — the former about 75 miles long and 15 to 25 
miles wide ; the latter in length about 50, and in breadth from five to fifteen miles. 
These sounds abound in fish of the finest varieties; but the principal fishing 
stations are in Albemarle Sound. An immense business in catching fish — her- 
rings, shad, etc. — is done ; and salting them is also a large business. The sounds 
are the resort also of vast quantities of water-fowl, notably ducks and geese ; but 
it is in Currituck Sound that they are found in greatest quantity. A number of 
small islands dot the shallow waters of the eastern side of this sound, where the 
wild celery and many kinds of grasses flourish in profusion. These aie the 
favorite haunts of the mallard, red-head and canvas-back ducks. They frequent 
these islands and shallow waters in incredible numbers. This region is the para- 
dise of the amateur sportsman, and clubs of Northern gentlemen have lodges 
here, to which they regularly repair at the proper season for hunting. 

A canal connects the waters of Albemarle Sound with Chesapeake Bay, and 
steamers ply to every point fiom Newbern to Norfolk. This region of country, 
though once locked up, is now fully laid open to commerce. Few, indeed, possess 
such ample facilities for transportation. In addition to this line of steamers, there 
is another by the Chowan and Black water Rivers, connecting with the Seaboard 
and Norfolk Railroad. Lastly, a line of railway has recently been constructed 
from Edenton to Norfolk. 

"The Banks" girdle the whole coast of the State — a distance of over 300 
miles. Though they shoot out from the northern extremity as a long narrow 
peninsula, they are broken in their course into a number of islands. They vary 
in breadth from one hundred yards to two miles, and in height from a few feet 
above the tide-level to 25 or 30 feet. Consisting as they do of pure sand, there is 
little cultivation of any sort. The subsistence of the inhabitants is generally 
derived from fishing, in which they are bold and expert. The possessions of these 
islanders consist mainly of flocks and herds. 



NORTE CAROLINA. 119 

MIDDLE AND PIEDMONT SECTION. 

The Middle Section extends from the western boundary of the tertiary forma- 
tion 01 Eastern Section to the Bkie Ridge Mountains, tlie western half of which, 
as already said, is distinguished as the Piedmont Section. It comprises nearly 
one-half of the territory of the State. 

In passing from the Eastern to the Middle Section there is a marked change 
in the general aspect of the country in its natural and cultivated productions and 
in other respects. The great Atlantic plain is left behind, which, on account of 
the uniformity of its surface, partakes of monotony, even where most fertile. 
Here, on the contrary, is an endless succession of hills and dales. Every step 
brings to view some new charm in the landscape— some new arrangement of the 
rounded hills, some new grouping of the tracts of forest which still cover so large 
a part of the country. The hills, indeed, in their gracefully curving outlines, 
present lines of beauty with which the eye of taste is never satiated. These are 
attractions which depend upon permanent features of the landscape, and which, 
though infinitely heightened in their effects by the verdure of spring and summer, 
are only brought into fuller relief by the nakedness of winter. The variations of 
surface, though less defined at first, become more marked towards the west, and 
towards the Blue Ridge the country assumes a bold and even rugged aspect. The 
long-leaf pine, so conspicuous in the Eastern Section, disappears, and is replaced 
by all that range of forest growth for which the State is so noted— a range in 
which there is scarce a tree that belongs to the temperate zone proper that is not 
only found, but found in abundance. If the two sections are viewed at the season 
when the crops are growing, the contrast is striking. Along with the long-leef 
pine, the cotton crop, except on the eastern and southern borders, has nearly 
disappeared also. Wheat, corn, sorghum, oats, buckwheat, barley and tobacco 
occupy the cultivated fields. In the Eastern Section, hay and pasture crops have 
not been enough cultivated to impart any distinguishing aspect to the country. 
In the Middle Section, clover and other grasses clothe the hills more or less; the 
larger bottoms are laid down in meadows; and commonly, the narrow flats 
between the hills, made by the little branches or rivulets, are sown in grass, and 
present belts of richest verdure. The change is seen in the streams. Those of 
the lowlands are dyed to a sable hue by the decaying vegetation with which the 
soil there is charged ; those of this section are as clear and pure as they flowed 
from their fountains, mirroring in their pools and longer reaches every object on 
their banks. A difference in the summer and autumn is felt in the air of the two 
sections. That of the lowlands, though kindly and not unhealthy, disposes some- 
what to lassitude and inaction ; that of this section is invigorating and wholesome, 
(being kept in perpetual motion at that season by gentle gales,) and favors active 

exertion. 

The hand of improvement is more visible in this than in any section of the 
State. In this section nature has distributed her blessings with a bounteous hand. 
Its salubrity, the variety and value of its productions, its mineral wealth, its 
manufacturing facilities, mark it out as one of the most desirable abodes for man 
and a future centre of great wealth and population. Nowhere do the conditions 
which are friendly to health, to the finest physical development, to the successful 
exertion of industries of every kind, and to rational enjoyment, exist in greater 
abundance than here. Those bounties are visible only in part. The earth is 
stored with coal, iron, gold and other metals, ores and minerals. Explorations 
have demonstrated that these exist in such quantity that localities in this section 
will become the seats of mining and manufacturing industries on a large scale 
when population and capital shall favor their full development. 



120 NORTH CAROLINA. 

The descent of the slope formed by the surface of the State is greatest in this 
section— through its entire extent, from 1,000 to 1,200 feet. The rivers, in their 
eastward flow down this descent, make their way with a lively current, varied 
with long reaches of comparatively tranquil water. Oftentimes they force their 
way through large barriers of primitive rock, and there occur rapids and falls 
which afford the finest water-powers. These have been utilized to some extent by 
the erection of grist and flouring mills in every neighborhood, and cotton mills on 
some of the rivers. Within the last few years the number of cotton mills has 
largely increased. Woolen mills have also been established in this section, and, 
though this branch of manufacture is yet in its infancy, the success which has 
attended the experiments that have been made cannot fail to invite investments 
in this du-ection. Sheep husbandry cannot be said to have made even a beginning 
in this State. Sheep are a part of the domestic animals on every farm, but are 
reared for domestic supplies of meat and wool. The surplus only is sold. Yet the 
supply of wool would sufllce for scores of such factories as are here. No pursuit 
would pay better than sheep husbandry in this State. The natural pasturage of 
the Mountain Section cannot be surpassed, particularly in the northwestern part 
of the State. Some of the most valued cultivated grasses are indigenous there, and 
all flourish with the greatest luxuriance. 

The wild range of the forest trees of North Carolina long since attracted the 
attention of botanists. It includes all those employed in the useful and many of 
those employed in the ornamental arts. Indeed, nearly all the species found in 
the United States east of the Rocky Mountains are found in North Carolina. Her 
wealt n in this respect will be appreciated when the fact mentioned by that eminent 
botanist. Dr. Curtis, is brought to mind, that there are more species of oaks in 
North Carolina than in all the States north of it, and only one less than in all 
the Southern States east of the Mississippi. Of these the white oak is the most 
prominent as being in most general use and most extensively serviceable. It is 
found from the coast to the mountains, but it is most abundant in the Middle 
Section. It rises to the height of 70 or 80 feet, with a diameter of two or three 
feet. The white hickory, too. is found in the forests from the coast to the moun- 
tains; but that of the Middle Section, for weight, tenacity, strength, and for its 
capacity for receiving a high polish, is pronounced by experts to be superior to 
any in the world. There are large establishments here for the manufacture of 
spokes, rims and handles, which are sent everywhere. The mature tree is about 
60 feet high and 18 or 20 inches in diameter. The white ash is found in both the 
Mountain and Middle Sections, but is manufactured for exportation chiefly in the 
latter. It is 50 to 70 feet high and two to three feet through. The elm is found 
in each section, though most abundant in the Middle. It is from 30 to 50 feet 
high and 12 to 18 inchee through. The maple is found throughout the State, but 
from its superior facilities for transportation, the timber is chiefly obtained in this 
section. The wood in old trunks is full of minute irregularities like knots. 
These, if cut in one direction, exhibit a spotted surface, to which the name of 
bird's-eye maple is given ; while if cut in 'another direction, they produce a wavy 
or shaded surface, called curly maple. The tree attains a height of 50 to 80 feet 
and a diameter of two to three feet. The beech is common here and grows luxu- 
riantly, but is most abundant in the Mountain Section. The tulip tree or poplar 
is native to all parts of the State, but is not so common in the lower section as the 
others. The persimmon is found in all parts of the State, but it is here only that 
it is obtained to any considerable extent. The black walnut is most abundant in 
this section. The yellow pine is sparingly found in the Eastern Section, but 
enters largely into the composition of the upland forest through the Middle and 



NORTH CAROLINA. 121 

IVIountaiu Sections. Its uses are so familiar and universal as to need no enumera- 
tion. It is from 40 to 60 feet high, with a circumference of four or five, and even 
six feet. The mulberrj' tree, though not valued for its timber, is so important in 
another respect as to deserve mention. It grows in all parts of the State, but is 
least abundant in the lower section. In the Middle Section it occurs so commonly 
that nature may be said to have laid the broadest foundation for the cultivation of 
silk there. This does not exhaust the list, but it will serve to give a clearer idea of 
the timber resources of this section. But though the materials for this branch of 
manufacturing abound here, a beginning only has been made. There are establish- 
ments for making wagons and pleasure vehicles, excellent both for material and 
workmanship, but great numbers of these are still brought in from other States. 
One branch of wood manufacture is prosecuted here with spirit and success — that 
of spokes and rims for carriages, and bobbins and similar implements used with 
the machinery of cotton and woolen mills. These are sent off in great quantities 
to distant parts of the United States, and to Europe and Australia. 

The branch of manufacture which has been most fully developed here is that 
of tobacco. The kind of tobacco chiefly used in these factories is known as the 
golden leaf. Villages and towns have grown up at short intervals within a few 
years on the principal lines of railroad, where the large warehouses and factories, 
the handsome churches, school-houses, residences and stores, give evidence of 
high prosperity. In some of these towns almost the whole business consists in 
prizing and manufacturing this commodity into different forms for the markets of 
the world. Of the productions of the State, none are manufactured at home to 
the same extent as tobacco. 

The cultivation of fruits of all kinds has been long pursued in this section 
i\ith skill, energy and judgment. Its wonderful adaptation for fruits was early 
■discovered, and many nurseries were established for rearing the young trees. 
Here the native fruits were perfected, choice foreign kinds introduced, and new 
kinds originated. The enterprise of the nurserymen has planted the finest fruit 
trees — as the apple, the peach, the pear, the apricot and the cherry — about every 
dwelling in this section, and widely beyond it. Nor have the garden fruits — as 
the fig, the currant, the raspberry and the like — received less attention. The 
supply of every kind for home consumption is unlimited — that of peaches and 
apples such that large quantities are fed to hogs. Here, too, as in the Eastern 
Section, the grape is an object of special culture. They are grown for the table 
at home and for the market. There are in this section several vineyards, some of 
which have an established reputation for their wines and brandies. Grapes are, 
however, grown mainly for the market. The genial soil and climate of this State 
enables the growers to put this and other fruits in the Northern markets some 
iveeks in advance of the same fruits grown there, and at a season when the appe- 
tite for fresh fruit has been whetted by abstinence, and when they bring the highest 
price. "When dried, also, they are a staple article of export. Wild berries, whose 
bushes spring spontaneously and cover every cleared spot not in cultivation, have 
given rise to an important industry here. The business of gathering and dr}'ing 
blackberries gives employment to many persons, especially children, whose ser- 
vices would not be available on the farm. They are shipped in quantities 
inconceivable by those unacquainted with this branch of trade. The demand 
for them is large and increasing, and the incomes derived from this source are in 
the aggregate very considerable. 

The different areas over which the cultivated crops of this section grow are 
well defined. Tobacco is the staple crop in the northern counties, though the 
cereals enter into the rotation ; in the central counties the cereals are the principal 



123 NORTH CAROLINA 

crops ; in the southern counties cotton is the staple crop ; but in all of them the 
cereals are also cultivated. There are many watering-places in this section which 
have long been favorite resorts for health and recreation. 

WESTERN SECTION. 

The Western Section is commonly called the Mountain Section — a name 
which, on account of its prominent physical features, is strictly applicable. It 
lies enclosed between the Smoky range on the west and the Blue Ridge on the 
east ; on the north and south it extends to the Virginia and South Carolina lines. 
In form it resembles an ellipse. Its width is from 25 to 50 miles ; its length is 
about 150 miles. It consists of a lofty plateau, the general level of which is from 
2,000 to 2,700 feet above the level of the sea. This plateau forms a base, upon 
which is clustered together a great number of the loftiest mountains to be found 
in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. The mountains w^hich reach 
a height of 6,000 feet can be counted by scores ; the number of those of an eleva- 
tion but little inferior is almost countless. On the eastern side of the plateau the 
mountains are massed together without any of that orderly arrangement common 
to most mountain systems. They are scattered, indeed, in wild disorder. On the 
western side a definite arrangement may be observed. The Watauga, the Nole- 
chucky, the French Broad, the Big Pigeon and the Hiawaesee flow nearly at right 
angles to and through the Smoky range. Between each of these rivers runs a 
chain of mountains parallel to them, and forming the divide between them. The 
mountains are clothed, with few exceptions, with trees to their tops. The excep- 
tions mark a singular caprice of nature. Through these chains of mountains are 
found many upon whose broad summits not a tree is to be seen, and hence desig- 
nated as "Balds." They are covered to the height of a horse's knee with grasses 
that aflford the finest pasturage. This section is a land where all the elements of 
beauty and grandeur are everywhere combined in a way to astonish and delight 
the beholder. 

The forests of this section include most of the trees of the Middle Section and 
many that belong to high Alpine latitudes — the same timber trees and some that 
are peculiar to this section. The wild cherry is found in each section, but here 
only does it acquire, its full dimensions or occur in quantity. On the rich and 
cool declivities of the mountains it attains a height of from 60 to 80 feet and a 
diameter of two to three feet. The white pine is found in this section of the 
State, and in this only. It forms peculiar and handsome forests in the rich 
elevated valleys of Ashe and Yancey. It is from 60 to 70 feet high, with a 
proportional diameter. The cucumber tree in this State grows only on the 
mountains, particularly of Ashe, Yancey and Burke, in moist, fertile soils of 
declivities and on the banks of torrents. It is from 60 to 80 feet high and 
from four to five feet in diameter. The hemlock is also confined to this section. 
It grows on the borders of torrents and cold swamps, but extends down to the 
very base of the mountains. The black birch or mountain mahogany is found in 
this State only in the Mountain Section. It affords a firm, compact, dark-colored 
wood, much valued for furniture, and is sometimes used for screws and imple- 
ments requiring strength. The white walnut is found upon bottom land and 
river banks in the valleys of the mountains. It attains a height of 50 feet, with a 
diameter of three feet or more. The chestnut, though found sparingly in the 
Middle Section, is confined chiefly to the mountains from Ashe to Cherokee. Its 
usual height is from 50 to 70 feet, and stocks are sometimes met with which, at 
six feet from the ground, measure 15 or 16 feet in circumference. The beech, 
though found in the Middle Section, occurs here in greatest abundance, and her© 



I 



NORTH CAROLINA. 123 

only attains its proper size. It rises from 50 to 80, and even 100 feet, with a 
diameter of two and three feet. The locust extends along the mountains from 
the northern to the southern boundary of the State. It is largely used by turners 
instead of box. The linn or lime tree is common in this section. It seldom 
exceeds 40 feet in height, with a diameter of 12 or 18 inches. In respect to those 
timber trees found here in common with the other sections, the mountain section 
has the advantage of possessing an unbroken forest. In comparison with the 
extent of forest lands, the clearings here are mere patches. There is little hazard 
in saying that there is nowhere in any of the States an equal area of land covered 
with timber trees of such various kinds and of such value. The walnut, tulip 
trees (poplars) and oaks attain a size that would hardly be credited by one who 
had not seen them. The preservation of this magnificent forest is due to the fact 
that it has hitherto been inaccessible to transportation. Within the past two 
years much of it has been brought into connection with the markets of the world. 
One railroad line passes entirely through this section, and another, branching off 
at Asheville, and leading to the extreme southwest of the State, is under con-, 
Btruction. Into the northwestern part of the State also a railroad has been 
completed and others projected, of which two are partially graded. 

The cultivated productions of this section are the same with those of the 
Middle Section, cotton and rice excepted. Its garden vegetables are the same; 
but the cabbage and the Irish potato grow here to a degree of perfection that 
cannot be excelled anywhere. Among the fruits, its apples are noted for size and 
flavor. Peaches and grapes grow well generally, but for their highest perfection 
nature has made provisions by a suspension to some extent of her ordinary laws. 
Throughout the mountains in certain localities and at certain elevations there are 
horizontal belts where frost is never known. Such localities are found not only 
in this section, but in the South Mountains and in the Brushy range. They con- 
stitute an unfailing source of supply of these fruits, and in process of time will 
be occupied by establishments for canning fruits for the markets of the world. 

The climate of this section diflfers less from that of the Middle Section than 
would be inferred from its higher altitude. The difference is more perceptible in 
summer than in winter. In the former season, its cool and bracing air, together 
wuth its varied scenery, its mineral waters — sulphur, chalybeate and thermal — 
made this section one of the favorite resorts of the people of the South and 
Southwest when it could only be reached by private conveyances. Since it has 
been penetrated by railroads, the influx of health and pleasure seekers has 
increased an hundred fold, and in the future will add very largely to its resources. 
It is the resort, too, of people from the far North in winter. It is protected by 
the range of mountains which form its boundaries from all the cold winds — the 
northeast, north, and the northwest. The degree of cold is therefore temperate. 
A pinching season may come at long intervals ; it is, however, of short duration? 
being quickly succeeded by weather of a moderate temperature. Such seasons 
are not unwelcome by way of contrast. The quantity of snow that falls here 
very little exceeds that of the Middle Section. Even in the high mountain 
ranges, cattle are excluded from pasturage by the snow only once in about 
seven years. 

The soils of the basins of the great rivers of this section and its mountain 
valleys are noted for their fertility. The capacity for the production of cereals 
and hay grasses is equal to those of any lands. As might be inferred from the 
heavy forest growth with which the entire surface is covered, the mountain sides 
are susceptible of profitable cultivation up to their summits. 

The mineral wealth of this section is varied and abundant. Marbles of the 
finest quality and of various colors compose whole mountains, so to speak, in 



124 NORTH CAROLINA. 

Macon and Cherokee. Corundum abounds in Macon, Clay, and many other 
counties. Mica is abundant in Mitchell and Yancey, and those counties yield a 
large part of the world's supply. The largest and finest sheets of it seen at the 
World's Fair at Vienna were from Yancey. This section is rich in iron ores of 
the best grade. Copper also is prominent among the metals of this region. The 
most noted mine is in Ashe. It has been extensively developed, and the business 
in all its branches is conducted with intelligence, skill and energy. The effect of 
these mining enterprises upon the prosperity of this section has been marked. 
Labor has found profitable employment, a home market has been furnished to the 
farmer, and there has been a general appreciation of property of every kind. 

Railroads are now entering the northwestern part of the State in several 
directions. The completion and connection of these, and the opening up of this 
region, so rich in elements of undeveloped wealth, is now regarded as the first 
and most imperative duty of the statesmen of Korth Carolina. 

The soils of tlie Middle and Mountain Sections may be treated of in one 
• view, since they owe their origin to the same cause. The rocks of this part of 
the State were brought into the position they now occupy at an early period of 
the earth's history. The soils that have been formed upon them have resulted 
from- their disintegration and decay. No stratum of foreign matter has been 
brought in from aV»road in either of these sections, that which has been caused by 
rain-water rushing down the sides of hills and flowing along the beds of streams 
alone excepted. The rocks are chiefly of the primitive formation — granites, 
schists, slates, &c. The soils vary in chemical composition and fertility according 
to the character of the rocks from which they are derived. The rocks range with 
the seashore and the mountain chains, and run uniformly in a direction from 
northeast to southwest. A brief notice of the principal formations of rocks is 
here subjoined, and the characters of the soils of each discriminated in a gen- 
eral way. 

West of the Eastern Section, (in our early geological reports termed tertiary, 
and by the later distinguished as the quaternary,) there occurs, in the counties 
of Northampton, Halifax, Johnston, Nash, FrankUn, Warren, Granville, Wake 
and Cumberland, a body of ancient primitive rock largely covered by sand. 
Amongst these, granite prevails more extensively than any other, and when the 
tertiary sand is absent, there is a fertile soil. 

The next formation of rocks going west is the sandstones. It commences in 
Granville, three or four miles southwest from Oxford, and passes through Orange 
and Wake, Chatham and Moore, Montgomery, Richmond and Anson, but through 
a part of Moore, Montgomery and Richmond it is covered by tertiary sand and 
clays. The principal constituent of this formation is a fine-grained greenish or 
reddish sandstone, whose particles are connected together by a mixture of clay 
and oxide of iron. This produces by its decomposition a soil favorable to the 
growth of corn, cotton, oats, and especially sweet potatoes, but is not so well 
adapted to that of wheat. 

The next formation is that of the transition and slate rocks. These occupy a 
large space in North Carolina. The principal body of these rocks traverses the 
State in a northeasterly and southwesterly direction, immediately west of the 
great sandstone formation, occupying a breadth of about 30 miles. This forma- 
tion includes the western part of Granville, the eastern part of Person, the central 
part of Orange, more than half of Chatham, nearly the whole of Randolph, the 
whole of Montgomery, (what is called sandstone excepted,) the whole of Stanly, 
the southern corner of Davidson and Rowan, the northwestern part of Anson 
and southwestern part of Mecklenburg. The most common and abundant con- 
stituent of this formation is a compound of silica and alumina — a sim^jle argelite 



NORTH CAROLINA. 125 

or clay slate. This prevails especially near its two extremities — in Granville and 
Person on its northern, and in Anson, Mecklenburg and Stanly on its southern 
extremity. The slate undergoes decomposition slowly, and has not to this day 
covered itself with any great depth of earth. The soil is never of a very high 
degree of fertility, but with gt)od cultivation excellent crops are obtained. The 
adaptability of these lands to the growth of fine yellow tobacco has very much 
enhanced their value. Throughout this body of slate, nowhere very thick, the 
granite occasionally penetrates and rises to the surfjice in tracts larger or smaller. 
In the southern part of Person, in Orange, Chatham, Randolph and Davidson, 
there are large patches of granite, and there results a much higher degree of fer* 
tility in the soil. 

"West of the slate formation a vast body of granite rock traverses the State, 
including in its area a large part of the counties of Person, Caswell, Orange, Guil- 
ford, Randolph, Davidson, Rowan, Cabarrus, Mecklenburg, Lincoln, Iredell, Davie, 
Stokes and Rockingham. Throughout this region, mica, one of the usual con- 
stituents of granite, is rare, and is replaced by chlorite or hornblende. The whole 
mass of rock, w^ith a structure more or less granitic, has an earthy aspect, indicating 
a recent origin. In consequence, it decomposes readily and into a fertile soil. Two 
of the three constituents of the granite — mica and felspar — furnish, by its disinte- 
gration, valuable ingredients to the soil. Both contain a considerable percentage 
of potash, though, from the refractory nature of the mica, the potash, that element 
so essential to tobacco and the smaller cereals, is chiefly derived from the felspar. 
When chlorite replaces the mica, it adds, upon the decomposition of the granite, 
another element — magnesia, its chief ingredient — an element indispensable to the 
healthy growth of the corn plant, (maize.) When mica is replaced by hornblende, 
.the latter supplies from its ingredients both magnesia and lime, and the presence 
of lime is a fundamental condition of fertility in all soils ; and it is observable 
that, of the region occupied by this formation, which is the great grain-growing 
region of the State, the tracts where hornblende predominates in their composi- 
tion — as in Cabarrus and Mecklenburg — are superior to the rest. 

West of this formation are the most ancient primitive rocks. Here every 
form of granite is met with. The tertiary compound of quartz, felspar and mica 
is most common, but with endless diversities, depending upon the proportion, 
color, size of the grains and other character of the constituent minerals. There 
occur here also indefinite alternations of gneiss, hornblende and micaceous schists, 
and occasionally chloritic and talcose slates. There is a great variety of soil, 
subordinate, however, to that general uniformity which characterizes the same 
formation, for most of the above rocks are essentially granitic. 

There is another body of transition slate in the western and northwestern 
part of the State, adjacent to Tennessee. It ranges along the western half of the 
border counties; but through Yancey and Mitchell shoots off a long projection, 
extending quite across the Blue Ridge to the Catawba, in Burke. 

COAL. 

The coal fields of North Carolina are referred by Dr. Emmons and Prof. Kerr 
to the triassic system. There are, says the latter, in this State two narrow fringes 
of an eroded and o];literated anticlinal which belong to this system — the smaller, 
or Dan River Belt, from two to four miles wide, following the trough-like valley 
of that stream (about N. 05° E.) for more than 30 miles, to the Virginia line; the 
other — the Deep River Belt — extending in a similar trough five to fifteen milee 
wide, (and depressed 100 to 200 feet below the general level of the country,) from 
the southern boundary of the State, in Anson County, in a X. E. direction, to the 
middle of Granville County, within 15 miles of the Virginia line. 



126 NORTH CAROLINA. 

The most important and conspicuous member of the series is a large body of 
black shales, which encloses seams of bituminous coal two to six feet. This coal 
lies near the base of the system in both belts, and is iinderlaid on Dan River by 
shales and on Deep River by sandstones and conglomerates— the latter constitu- 
ting the lowest member of the series, and being in places very coarse. The black 
shales near the base of the system contain beds of fire" clay and black band iron 
ore interstratified with the coal. 

Emmons reports five seams of coal, separated by black slates, shales, black 
band iron ore and fire clay ; and, in general, he finds a remarkable similarity to 
the coal deposits of the carboniferous formation. The coal, with its shales, out- 
crops along the northern margin of the belt at various points for more than 15 
miles ; and many shafts having been sunk to and through the main seam, which 
is the upper one, it is ascertained to be very persistent in all its characteristics 
and associated beds. The area of this coal field is given by Emmons as about 300 
square miles. The quality of the coal is also discussed by him and by Admiral 
Wilkes, and various analyses are published — the three following by the latter, of 
samples from different parts of the field : 

Carbon 60.7 5925 84.56 

Volatile Matter 32.7 30-53 7-42 

Ash 5.3 10.21 7.89 

Sulphur 1.3 

100. o 99-99 99-87 

Specific Gravity 1.28 1.41 1.49 

The first analysis (by Schaefi'er) represents the coal at the Eg^^pt shaft, the 
second (by Prof Johnson) the outcrop at Farmersville, and the third (by the 
same) the Wilcox seam. Wilkes says, in his report to the United States Govern- 
ment, "the three upper seams of the bituminous coal are well adapted for fuel, 
cooking, gas and oil. It is a shining and clear coal, resembling the best specimens 
of Cumberland. It ignites easily, and burns with a bright, clear combustion, and 
leaves a A'cry little purplish gray ash. It swells and agglutinates, making a hollow 
fire. It yields a shining and ver}' porous coke, and is an excellent coal for making 
gas or for burning. The drj or debituminized coal exists in but small quantities 
in the basin, and contains less than one-quarter of the volatile matter that the 
bituminous coal contains. 

In regard to the value of the Chatham coal for gas-making, the reports of the 
superintendents of the gas-works of Norfolk and Portsmouth are highly fovor- 
able, " both as to the quality of the gas produced and the quantity which a given 
amount of the coal yielded." 

It is worth while to mention here also the bituminous shales, which show 
themselves in so strong force above the coal in the Egypt Section. Dr. Emmons 
estimated the thickness of the oil-bearing strata at 70 feet, and pronounced them 
capable of yielding 80 per cent, of their weight in kerosene oil ; so that here is an 
inexhaustible resource for fuel over and above that furnished by the coal seams. 

On Dan River the coal first shows itself on the surface about tlu*ee miles east 
of Germanton, being imperfectly exposed in a ravine. The coal is about three 
feet thick. Some six to seven miles further east, at Stokesburg, there are outcrops 
of three seams in succession — the upper about three feet thick, with a heavy body 
of bituminous shales. The other two were not well enough exposed for measure- 
ment, but they were explored by a very intelligent gentleman, who reports one 
of them as much thicker than the top seam. The black shales and slates crop out 
at various points about the town of Madison; and near Leaksville a slope was 
driven some 60 feet on the coal seam, which is here three feet thick and with a dip 
of 34°, and consideral)le quantities were mined during the war. It is classed as a 



NORTH CAROLINA. 137 

«emi-bituminous or dry coal. The outcrops show that the coal is continuous 
through the whole length of the belt in this State, which is above 30 miles. 

COPPER. 

Dr. Genth, the eminent mineralogist, says, in regard to copper ores : " Copper 
ores have been found in many localities throughout the State in the veins of the 
old gneissoid rocks, as well as in the more recent slates, and even in the triassic 
formation. The principal ore is chalcopyrite or copper pyrites, and there is every 
reason to believe that many of the mines require only a fuller development to 
enable them to furnish large quantities of valuable ores. Many of the gold veins 
are associated with pjTitic ores, and, in fact, almost all the North Carolina copper 
mines in the central counties have first been worked for gold; and there are 
hardly any mines in Guilford, Cabarrus and Mecklenburg Counties occurring in 
the gneissoid and syeuitic rocks which do not show strong indications of copper 
ores. The general character of these mines is, that about at water level, the 
so-called brown gold ores are replaced by quartz richly charged with iron pyrites 
more or less mixed with copper pyrites — the latter increasing as the mine deepens, 
and in many places becoming the only or the predominating ore, and forming a 
regular copper vein. The ores either became poor in gold or the latter could not 
be extracted by the ordinary process then chiefly in use in North Carolina — 
Chilian mills and arastra. Therefore, many valuable mines were abandoned, 
mostly before a larger and paying quantity of copper ores had been reached. The 
principal mines which promised to change into copper mines are, in Guilford 
County, the Fisher Hill, the North Carolina, the McCulloch, Lindsay, Gardner 
Hill, Twin Mines, etc.; in Cabarrus County, the Ludowick, Boger, Hill, Phoenix, 
Orchard, Vanderburg, Pioneer Mills, etc.; and in Mecklenburg, the McGinn, Hope- 
W' ell, Rudisill, Cathay Mines, etc. The cupreous minerals observed in the mines 
are, near the surface, small quantities of native copper and cuprite — the latter 
sometimes in beautiful needles; the so-called chalcotrichite, malachite; rarely 
azurite, chrysocolla and pseudo-malachite, and in some of the mines chalcocite 
and barnhardtite — all resulting from the decomposition of chalcopyrite or copper 
pyrites, which forms the principal ore. Siderite or carbonate of iron often forms 
an important gangue rock." There are, says Emmons, several veins of copper ore 
in the northeast part of Person County. 

GOLD. 

The gold of North Carolina belongs to four dilferent geological positions: 
1. The loose quartz grit beneath the surface soil ; 2. In stratified layers, which are 
cotemporaneous with the rock ; 3. Li connection with seams and joints of the 
rocks, and probably also diffused in the mass; 4. In regular veins associated with 
quartz and the sulphurets of iron and copper. The principal counties in which it 
has been found in sufiicient quantity for exploitation are Franklin, Nash, Gran- 
ville, Alamance, Chatham, Moore, Guilford, Davidson, Randolph, Montgomery, 
Stanly, Union, Cabarrus, Rowan, Mecklenburg, Lincoln, Gaston, Catawba, Cald- 
well, Burke, McDowell, Rutherford, Polk, Cleveland, Cherokee, Jackson, Transyl- 
vania and Watauga. It is generally more or less alloyed with silver, varying from 
pure gold on the one side to pure silver on the other. Near the surfiice it is 
usually associated with limonite, and at a greater depth of the deposits with 
pyrite, chalcopyrite, galenite, zincblende, tetradymite, arsenopyrite ; rarely with 
altaite and nagyagite. 

GOLD MINING IN 1882. 

Mr. G. B. Hanna, U. S. Assay Office, writing in 1882, saj-s: The auriferous 
area of North Carolina in a general waj' embraces nearly one-half of the State. 



128 NORTH CAROLINA. 

The productive area is much less, containing a little more than 12,000 square 
miles. Franklin and Nash Counties on the northeast, Moore County on the 
southeast, and the Tennessee line, mark approximately the east and west bound- 
aries of the gold field. It extends on the north into Virginia and on the south 
into South Carolina. It comprises the best known and most productive part of 
the Apalachian gold belt. Nearly every mode of occurrence of gold known to 
the geologist and mining engineer finds here an illustrative example. 

GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE MINES. 

The best known mines are upon the central belt of granite (for such it may 
be termed in a general way) stretching across the State in a northeast or south- 
west direction, with a width of 10 to 25 miles, the towns of Greensboro and 
Charlotte being nearly on its axis. This area is commonly regarded by geologists 
as among the oldest on the American Continent. To the east is a large body of 
slates, generally argillaceous, but frequently departing from that type, with a 
width varying from 15 to 50 miles. This region also abounds in mines, but it has. 
been less explored. To the west is a still larger area made up for the most part 
of gneissoid and schistose formations, and extending nearly or quite to the Ten- 
nessee border. This area, too, has a large number of mines, but the most valuable 
deposits are placers and gravel washings. 

To give a list of the gold mines of the State, with the various components 
and values of their ores, would be beyond the scope of this work ; nor could I 
hope to do justice to them. Everyone thinking of investing in a gold mine will 
visit the spot, investigate the elements of cost and profit, and consider so many 
things upon which even a large w^ork could not supply adequate information, that 
I feel that no disappointment will result to an investigator by reason of my 
brevity. Suffice it therefore to say that North Carolina is one of the greatest 
gold-producing States east of the Rocky Mountains; that there are nearly or quite 
300 gold mines in the State ; that some of these are of great profit ; that some are 
managed on most approved plans; that capital may be said to be continually flow- 
ing into this industry ; and that reduction works, either for an entire or partial 
reduction of the metallic gold, are situated at various points in the State. 

IRON. 

After having again and again gone over my material, trying to reduce it to 
something like proportions compatible with my scope, I am compelled to fall back 
on the merest outline. This vagueness is objectionable. But to mention all 
localities is impossible ; to mention some and omit some is an invidious discrimi- 
nation. But the persons seeking iron in North Carolina cannot be so much, 
injured, because investigation will pay so well there. Hardly anywhere in the 
United States will exploitation prove more remunerative than there. Undoubt- 
edly, immense deposits of most superb iron ore are to be found there whose 
presence is unsuspected by the inhabitants, or disregarded. Enough is known to 
show the richness of much of North Carolina in mineral resources. But much of 
the surface has only been scnitcJted, as it were, es])ecia]ly in the western part of 
the State. In order that I may not seem to exaggerate, I quote the language of 
Prof Kerr, who, in his report for 1875, gives some very strong language to the 
many discoveries of and references to the iron ores of the State. He says in 
closing: "This completes the description of the North Carolina iron ores as far 
as my investigations and information have gone. There remains much to do to 
complete the chapter. There are many blanks to fill, and whole counties of which 
little is known, except that they contain iron ores. My work has been necessarily 
limited to the study of sucAi ore beds as have happened to be opened, and of 



NORTH CAROLINA. 139 

course these are but a small proportion of the whole in a region always wholly- 
devoted to agriculture, and studiously eschewing all sorts of manufacturing." 

Since the above was written there has been no geological survey of the State. 
Private enterprise has done something doubtless, but its fruits are not accessible; 
but all investigations confirm Prof Kerr's views. To later exploitation (but still 
very limited) some of the inspiration of Prof. Colton's language may owe its force 
and (to the uninformed) its air of almost over-statement. 

In "Western North Carolina, Prof Colton says, there is an "immense quantity" 
of magnetite. Further : " The day will come when this Western North Carolina 
will be as famed for its mines of magnetic and specular iron ores, of copper, 
nickel, manganese and chrome, as is now the Lake Superior Country." Further 
on he says : " Having in our reach (referring to North Carolina) and in our own 
mountains (referring to Tennessee) as much magnetic iron ore as either of these 
other States," (referring to New York and Pennsylvania.) " Only a small part of 
the great Alleghany magnetic ore vein is in Tennessee," but in North Carolina it 
exists in prodigious quantity. 

We shall now briefly mention the counties where iron ores occur, give some 
analyses and the varieties of the ore. As preparatory to this, however, it will be 
well to quote from Prof Kerr as follows : " The ores of iron are very widely dis- 
tributed in this State, their occurrence being not only co-extensive with the area 
of the archaean or azoic rocks, but extending over the mesozoic, and even into the 
quaternary ; and these occurrences include all the principal kinds of ore — magne- 
tite, hematite, limonite and siderite— and most of their varieties and modifications." 

LIMONITE ORES OF THE EAST. 

Beds of various proportions, from two to four feet thick, are found in the 
counties of Nash, Duplin, New Hanover, Edgecombe, Pitt, Halifax and Robeson. 
This ore is of common occurrence in most of the above counties. Two analyses 
are given. One shows : 

Sulphuric Acid 0.03 

Phosphoric Acid o.ii 

I''on 42.73 

Another gives : 

Sulphur OQj 

Phosphorus 0.02 

Metallic Iron 53-93 

The author says that reliable authority tells him " the iron made was of excel- 
lent quality, soft and very strong." 

HEMATITES OF HALIFAX AND GRANVILLE. 

In Halifax County there are several outcrops of hematite ore. The ore is 
granular for the most part, and of the variety known as specular, with a consid- 
erable variety of magnetic grains disseminated through it. Analyses of two of 
them show ores of conspicuous purity : 

Phosphorus 0.00 0.05 

Sulphur 0.03 0.08 

Metallic Iron 58.73 53.31 

In Granville County iron ore is reported in various places. 

IRON ORES OP CHATHAM AND ORANGE. 

Very important iron counties. Ore in former likened to that of the Iron 
Mountain, Mo., and its extent and mode of occurrence suggests the Pilot Knob. 
It is at least equal to either of these notable iron-ore deposits in quantity, and is 
equally pure, and has the advantage of both in the presence of large percentages 
of manganese, and the capacity to produce spiegeleisen without admixture of other 



130 NORTH CAROLINA. 

ores. A company — The American Iron and Steel Compan}' — has secured a small 
vein in one part of the county and is working it. They make a superior car- 
wheel iron. Analyses show *hat the product is mostly a sjnegeleiseu. 

An ore partly limonite, but mostly red hematite, is found in this county. Two 
analyses show it to yield nearly 50 per cent, of iron, with little phosphorus and 
no sulphur. There is some black band and ball ore, or "kidney ore." These ores 
seem to l)e co-extensive with the coal on Deep River, outcropping ever3'where 
with it, and several places outside of its limits. Two seams are shown in the 
sections, and there is a third in the bottom shales not penetrated at the Gulf, but 
shown in the Egypt Section as accompanying the lower coal 30 feet below the 
main scam. Some of it contains 33 per cent, of metallic iron. In one place it 
occurs " in balls or continuous beds." Its adaptation as a use for flux is obvious — 
an analysis showing 52.80 per cent, of carbonate of lime and 13.60 of carbonate of 
magnesia. In one place the seam of black band between the main coal beds in 
one shaft is 16 inches — the lower one consisting of two thicknesses of three feet 
each, separated by a thin seam of coal. Prof. Kerr says the quantity of phospho- 
rus which these beds contain is notable, but says they are valuable for casting, 
and, with the exception of phosphorus, are well constituted, containing the neces- 
sary" amount of carbon, of flux and of manganese for the manufacture of iron 
very cheapl}', bj" judicious mixing of the ores obtainable in the immediate neigh- 
borhood. There are many other places in Chatham County where ore of great 
purity and abundance is found, making it a notable iron count}^ One ore yields 
63.49 metallic iron, no phosphorus and little sulphur. 

Another ver}' notaljle iron county is Orange. An analysis of Orange County 
ore gives a yield of 65.77 per cent, of iron, with sulphur 0.11 and phosphoric acid 
0.04, and the quantity is ver}' great. 

Of the county of Person Prof Kerr says: "There is a vein of hematite, 
(specular,) from which iron was made to some extent during the war. The vein 
is described as about six feet thick. 

The ores of Montgomery and Randolph Counties belong properly (geologi- 
cally) to the Chatham range. They are found in the same great slate belt 
(Huronian) that constitutes the most notable feature of the Middle Region of the 
State, both geologically and mineralogically. Some of the strongest and most 
highly prized iron obtained during the war came from Randolph Countv- It was 
all devoted to the manufacture of shafts and other machinery for the steam rams 
(ironclads) and the like. In Montgomery County, hematite of apparently- consid- 
erable extent, and free from sulphur, and a very pure ore, is found. 

One of the most remarkable and persistent ranges of iron ore in the State 
crosses the county of Guilford in a northeast and southwest direction. It passes 
clear across the county into Rockingham — a distance of some 30 miles — making 
its appearance on nearly every plantation, and, indeed, almost every hillside in the 
range. The ore is granular magnetite and is everywhere titaniferous. This range 
has been explored ]yy Prof J. P. Lesley, one of the most eminent geologists on the 
continent, and many analyses made by Dr. F. A. Genth, of Philadelphia, Pa., 
whose reputation is also well known. Of Prof Lesley's report on these ores I 
can give space to only a few points. 

The ore is in the form of beds, full of foldings and fractures — to be expected 
where only the oldest metamorphic rocks are found. It is coarse grained and 
associated with crystals of chlorite. The ore beds vary from point to point below 
the range. The belt of outcrop of ore-l)earing rocks has a uniform breadth of 
several hundred yards. They dip as low as a mile beneath the surface, and then 
rise again as ore beds. In one section the ore bed is full six feet across; solid ore; 



L 



NORTH CAROLINA. 131 

a very green, cliloritic, mica slate, rock ore. In this vein of 800 yards there are 
apparently 200,000 tons above water level in the one six-foot bed. 

The quantity of ore which this remarkable range is capable of yielding is 
obviously immense. The principal beds may be safely estimated on an average of 
four feet, and in the best mining localities the average yield of a long gangway 
may reach live feet. It is evident that centuries of heavy mining could not 
exhaust it, for each of two or three principal beds may be entered and mined at 
fifty places. 

The kind of ore is titaniferous magnetite. More particularly, not only tita- 
nium, but chromium and manganese are uniformly present. It is the same family 
to which the Champlain (or Adirondack) ores, the Marquette (Lake Superior) ores 
and the ore of the Iron IMountain, in Missouri, belong. It is very similar to the 
New Jersey ores, which are so extensively mined for the furnaces on the Lehigh 
River. It is a mixture of magnetic crystals and specular plates of sesquioxide of 
iron, with quartz, felspar and mica in a thousand varying proportions. Some- 
times the bed will be composed of heavy, tight, massive magnetite, (or titaniferous 
magnetite,) with very little quartz, &c.; at other times of a loose, half-composed 
mica-slate or gneiss rock, full of scattered crystals of magnetic iron. 

Many analj^ses are given, made by Dr. Genth. The summary is thus given: 
"From these analyses it is seen that the average of the 10 specimens of original 
iron ore, which represent the whole range for a distance of nearly 30 miles, is: 
Iron 54.61 per cent.; titanium 8.07 = 13.24 per cent, of titanic acid. The ratio 
between titanium and iron is = 1 : 6.77. All the ores were examined for sulphur 
and phosphorus, and were found to be entirely free from these substances." A 
good deal is said of the value of titanium in iron in proper proportion, showing 
the great value of this ore, and proving it superior to the Canada ores, and 
making it like the "best Swedish iron." 

I give a few of Dr. Lesley's general conclusions: "The quality of ore, 
although various, and suited to at least two branches of the iron manufacture, is 
of the very first rate ; none better in the world. The soft ores will smelt easily 
and make magnificent iron ; absolutely the very best ; perfectly malleable, tough 
and strong. The hard ores will command a high price for puddlers' linings; will 
be in demand for mixing with poorer ores of other regions, and Avill have an 
especial value for the Siemens and the Bessemer processes, and the steel manufac- 
ture generally. The quantity of the ore is limitless." 

Prof. Kerr then remarks with great pertinence : "Any one who has the least 
knowledge of the present drift of the iron industry of the world, and of the con- 
trolling importance of high-grade ores, is prepared to realize the immense value 
of such deposits as those just described in Guilford, and in Harnett, Chatham, 
Orange and Halifox Counties, This Guilford range of ores has not been traced 
to its termination in either direction, and doubtless other valuable beds will be 
discovered ; and there are already indications that there are outcrops of the same 
kind of ore as far northeast as Caswell County — some very fine specimens of 
magnetite having been brought to the museum from that county." 

In Rockingham there are iron-ore localities which do not belong to this 
range, and a bed of red hematite is spoken of about 10 inches thick at the out- 
crop. It is very dense, heavy and hard, uncrystalline and almost jaspery, and is 
no doubt a good ore, judging from its appearance. 

IRON ORES OF MECKLENBURG AND CABARRUS. 

No iron mines of any extent have been worked in these counties, but ore has 
been found in a number of localities. Hard specimens of magnetic ore of great 
purity are frequently seen. 



132 NORTH CAROLINA. 

IRON ORES OP GASTON, LINCOLN AND CATAWBA 

In these counties is one of the most extensive ore ranges in the State. It is 
also the best known and best developed of them all, and has been the principal 
source of our domestic supplies of iron for a hundred years. Some of the fur- 
naces of the region were put in blast during the Revolutionary AVar. The ores 
are predominantly magnetic, with a variable percentage of hematite, and are 
found in the belt of talcose and quartzitic slates. They are mostly of a very 
slaty structure and friable ; in fact, they may be generally described as magnetic 
and specular schists. For a considerable part of the range there are two parallel 
beds, their thickness running from four feet (and sometimes as low as two feet) to 
twelve — the interval of twelve to twenty feet between them being occupied by 
talcose and chloritic slates, with a little ore in layers. The beds generally occur 
in lenticular masses or flattish disks, which thicken at the middle and thin out 
toward the edges, having nearly the same dip with the bed ; but they do not suc- 
ceed each other in one plane, their edges overlapping so as to throw the upper 
edge of the lower behind the lower edge of the upper. The ore has been gener- 
ally mined in a very rude and wasteful fashion, the operations seldom penetrating 
beyond water level 50 or 60 feet, and generally limited to surface openings. In 
one locality the quantity of ore seems to be very great, the thickness of the beds 
at some places being estimated at about 18 feet. Limestone for fluxing is found 
convenient in the range of beds which accompanies these slates one to two miles 
to the west, from King's Mountain to a point several miles beyond Anderson 
Mountain. The range of these two parallel beds naturally divides itself into two 
groups of beds — the northern and the southern — the one lying mostly in Lincoln, 
and the other in Gaston. 

In Catawba County there is a series of ore deposits whose mineralogical 
character and geological relations are entirely different from those of the ore beds 
of Lincoln County. They occur in the syenitic belt — a narrow zone of three to 
five miles parallel to the slate belt across these counties, from the great bend of 
the Catawba River nearly to South Carolina. The ore is a remarkably pure mag- 
netite — heavy, black, metallic and non-granular for the most part. It occurs in 
irregular masses — pockets, which seem to be scattered very disorderly through the 
massive syenitic rock ; so that the proper way to seek for it is by the miner's com- 
pass. The iron manufactured from it in the forges of the neighborhood was in 
much request before and during the war, being very malleable, tough and strong. 
During the war the blooms were used for the manufacture of shafts for ironclads 
and bolts for the cannon of the coast forts. One analysis of these ores gives 66.75 
per cent, of iron ; and Dr. Genth says " these ores contain neither sulphur nor 
phosphorus." 

The belt of limestone which forms an unfailing term of the King's 3Iountain 
slates through their course, lying generally about a mile west of the iron-ore beds, 
with timber, water-power, «fec., furnishes favorable conditions for the cheap nro- 
duction of iron. 

IRON ORES OF YADKIN, SURRY AND STOKES. 

The ores of this region are found along the base and among the spurs and 
foot-hills of the Pilot and Sauratown Mountains. There are two groups. They 
are all magnetic and granular, but differ in the two groups in their mode of occur- 
rence. In the latter case the ore is disseminated in grains, for the most part, 
through mica slates and gneiss rocks, and the earthy and rocky matter often bears 
a large proportion to the ore, and requires to be separated by stamping and wash- 
ing before it is sutficiently concentrated for the forge. The rock is generally 
decomposed to a great depth, and the grains of ore easily separated by very rude 
and cheap means. Analyses show some of the iron to be apparently very pure. 



NORTH CAROLINA. 133 

The nortberu or Slokes group of the range lies on the east (north) side of 
Dan River The ores (of which there are several beds,) are all magnetites, with 
sometimes a small admixture of hematite. Analyses by Dr. Genth show fine 
iron— one analysis yielding 6o.84 of iron; another 61.74. Prof. Kerr says the 
purity of these ores is conspicuous. Phosphorus is wholly wanting. Some 
samples contain a small percentage of pyrites. 

IROX ORES OF BURKE, CALDWELL, ETC. 

There are many valuable beds of limonite in a range extending in a northeast 
direction from the northeastern foot-hills of the South Mountains into the Brushy 
Mountains; from Jacob's Fork ot Catawba River, near the eastern border of 
Burke, across the Catawba, and by way of Gunpowder Creek, to the waters of 
Middle Little River, near the eastern border of Caldwell ; and beyond, near Rocky 
Creek, in Alexander; and even on the northern slopes of the Brushy Mountains, 
in Wilkes, the same ores occur, being undistinguishable in appearance and of 
identical lithological relations. These ores are associated with the peculiar kyan- 
itic hydro-mica schists and purplish paragonite schists which characterize the 
region. Specimens of magnetic ore are of frequent occurrence in Burke County 
and the western part of Catawba. 

Watauga County has some of the specular martite schist. In one location 
there is a bed three or four feet thick. The quality of this ore is so high as to 
justify an exploration of this promising outcrop, and, indeed, of the M'hole range, 
which, however, docs not stop at this point, but follows the line of the Blue Ridge 
for a distance of 75 miles, showing itself in the notable magnetiferous and mar- 
titic schists of Fisher's Peak, near the Virginia line, on the Surry- Alleghany 
border. 

In McDowell County there are several beds of limonite. When worked 
alone they make an inferior iron, but mixed with the magnetites and hematites of 
the region, they would become available for the manufacture of good metal. The 
limestone beds of the same belt are conveniently located for furnishing a flux, 
and the forests of these mountains will furnish indefinite quantities of fuel. 

At Ore Mountain, in Buncombe County, there is a bed of limonite. The bed 
is not well exposed ; but three or four feet of thickness are visible on the steep 
escarpment, and large masses W'hich have broken oflf are fallen down to a lower 
point on the slope. 

IRON ORES OF MITCHELL AND ASHE. 

In Mitchell County is found one of the most remarkable iron-ore deposits in 
North America. It is known as the Cranberry Ore Bank. It is in the northeast 
corner of the county, three miles from the Tennessee line. The prevalent and 
characteiistic rock of the mountains in this locality is hornblende slate and 
syenite, and it is on the northern margin of a mountainous ledge of such rocks 
that the ore bed occurs, gray gneisses and gneissoid slates coming in beyond in 
immediate succession and association in part. The ore is a pure magnetite, 
massive and generally coarse-granular, and exhibits strong polarity. It is asso- 
ciated with pyroxene and epidote in certain parts of the bed. The steep slope of 
the mountain gorge and ridges which the bed occupies are covered with blocks of 
ore often of hundreds of pounds weight, and in many places bare vertical walls 
of massive ore 10 and 15 feet thick are exposed, and the trenches and open dig- 
gings wiiich are scattered without order over many acres of surface everywhere 
reach the solid ore within a few feet of the surface. The length of the outcrop is 
about 1,500 feet, and the breadth 300 to 800. As this is a most remarkable iron 
ore, I give the following tables : 



134 NORTH CAROLINA. 

64 65 66 67 68 

Magnetic Oxide of Iron 94-37 9i-45 85.59 80.77 91.89 

O.xide of Manganese 0.26 0.06 0.24 1.42 0.32 

Alumina 0.42 0.77 o.ii 0.52 1.03 

Lime 0.43 i"oi 0.72 1.06 

Magnesia 0.36 0.53 0.33 0.23 

Water 0.44 1.53 8.21 1.15 

Silica, Pyroxene, etc 4.16 5.74 11.48 9.08 4.02 

Sulphur 0.2s 

Phosphoric Acid trace 

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 99-95 
Metallic Iron 68.34 66.22 61.98 58.49 66.53 

The first four of these analyses are by Dr. Genth, who says " the first three 
samples contain neither titanic acid, nor phosphorus and sulphur; the fourth 
contains a trace of phosphoric acid." No. 68 was made by Prof. Chandler, of 
Columbia College, New York City, who remarks: "Tliis is the best iron ore I 
have ever analyzed. It is very rich in iron and very free from sulphur and phos- 
phorus." The smiths and farmers of the region will use no other iron if the 
Cranberry can be had, and they willingly pay 50 per cent, more for it than any 
other in the market. The softness and toughness of this iron is very remarkable, 
and its tensile strength, as tested by the United States Ordnance Department, 
ranks with that of the best irons known. In quality it is unsurpassed hy any iron 
in the world; and in regard to quantity, the bed much exceeds the great deposits 
of Missouri and Michigan, and at least equals anything in the Champlain Region; 
80 that it has not probably an equal in this country. 

The Cranberry Ore Mine was purchased some years ago by a Pennsylvanian, 
who built a railroad (narr^AV gauge) about 40 miles to the mine, and has been 
shipping the ore principally to Allentown, Pa., where the furnaces are. Of late a 
furnace has been built at the mines. 

In Ashe County, in the northwest corner of the State, there are some impor- 
tant ore deposits on the waters of north fork of New River. The ores are highly 
magnetic. In one instance a bed -f very pure magnetite is reported 18 feet in 
thickness. This is manifestly an iron region, and worthy of a thorough inves- 
tigation. 

IRON ORES OF THE FRENCH BROAD. 

There are several localities on the M'estern slopes of the Black Mountains, on 
the head-waters of Joy, in the eastern edge of Madison, where magnetite is found 
in considerable surfjice masses, though no explorations have been made. The 
prevalent rock of the region is gneiss, with much hornblende slate and syenite. 
There are many fragments of this ore of considerable size along the steep slope of 
a mountain spur. There is a bed of titaniferous ore in the county. In various 
other parts of Madison surface indications of magnetite are found. 

In Haywood County there is a large massive outcrop of granular magnetite. 
It is in the northwestern part of the county, on Wilkins' Creek. The bed is no 
doubt large, from the boldness of the outcrop, which projects in large masses 
above the surface. There are also magnetites and hematites in various localities 
of Jackson and ^lacon Counties, some of which are represented in the museum 
by very fine specimens, aud the deposits are reported to be extensive; but as 
no iron has been made in those counties, there has been no occasion for their 
development. 

IRON ORES OF CHEROKEE. 

There is no other county in the State which contains so much iron ore as 
Cherokee. It is all, however, of one species — limonite. The marble beds of 
Valley River and Notteley River are everywhere accompanied by beds of this 
ore. There seem to be generally tAvo, three and four parallel beds of it, one or 



NORTH CAROLINA. 135 

two of which are frequently slaty and micaceous— a limonitic mica slate— and the 
others cellular, concretionary, etc., and the most western generally ochreous. The 
breadth of this iron and marble range is two to more than three miles. The 
whole iron range of the county is above 30 miles. The most common and char- 
acteristic terms of the series in cross-section are, counting from the northwest, 
slaty gneiss and mica schist, limonite, steatite, marble, limonite, slaty quartzite, 
slaty limonite, mica schist and slaty gneiss. An analysis by Chatard for Genth 
shows as follows: 

Sesquioxide of Iron 85.69 

Silica 1-50 

Water 12.81 

100.00 
Metallic Iron 59 88 

Many localities are given where this ore prevails, and in some places of great 
thickness. The marble will furnish flux and the forests fuel. 

Thus somewhat imperfectly I have sifted out something as to the iron of 
North Carolina, and am quite largely indebted to Mr. P. M. Hale's work, "In the 
Coal and Iron Counties of North Carolina." 

In "Mineral Resources of the United States," by Williams, 1883, I find on 
page 429 the following : " Quite recently a new deposit of chrome ore has been 
discovered in Jackson County, North Carolina. It promises to be of better 
quality than any other in the Eastern States." 

OTHER USEFUL MINERALS. 

Mica.—M\c2i mining has been carried on most extensively in Mitchell, Yancey 
and Macon Counties; in Jackson, Haywood and Buncombe, etc., to a less extent. 
One mine in Mitchell yields a ton of marketable mica a month, and this region 
furnishes the bulk of this mineral to the world's markets. The aggi'egate product 
of these mines has been over 250,000 pounds, worth about half a million dollars. 

Corundum has been found in large quantities in several counties west of the 
Blue Ridge, and is now extensively mined. Several valuable rubies and sapphires 
have been obtained, among them a crystal of 312 grains, which is in the cabinet 
of Amherst College, Massachusetts. 

Chromic Iron.— ^m^W quantities of chrome are found associated with some of 
the iron ores of the State, the lead which crosses Guilford County for example; 
but it is also found as chromic iron in coarsely crystalline masses often of consid- 
erable size, and in the form of very irregular veins or pockets, in the chrysolite 
beds of Jackson, Yancey, Mitchell and Watauga Counties. The most consider- 
able deposits are two— one in Jackson County, the other in Yancey. 

Ma7ujanese.—VyYo\\\^\tQ, psilomelane and wad are found in small quantities in 
many places in this State, but nowhere in abundance, so far as known. They are 
generally associated with iron, gold and silver ores. There is a very promising 
vein or bed of psilomelane in Caldwell County. There is also a small seam in 
Stokes County, and laminated masses of one half to one inch thick occur in the 
Buckhorn iron-ore beds. Manganese is found associated Avith the iron ores in 
various parts of the State. Beds of manganese garnet are of common occurrence 
and often of great thickness. There is a series of such beds associated with the 
King's Mountain slates of Gaston, Lincoln and Catawba, which are superficially 
changed to black oxide. Several veins of the black oxide of considerable extent, 
says Prof Kerr in a recent report, have been found. 

Kaolin is found abundantly almost from one end of the State to the other— 
from Edi^ecombe and Robeson to Macon. 



136 NORTH CAROLINA. 

Fire Clay. — The vast tertiary and quaternary tracts of the Eastern Section, 
says Prof. Kerr, abound in beds of potter's clay, fire clay, &c. Dr. Emmons, in 
his report, refers particularly to one locality. He says: Clay for fire brick is 
abundant in Gaston Countj'. It is free, I believe, entirely from lime and the alka- 
lies, potash and soda. It extends through the county. It is inexhaustible in the 
vicinity of King^'s Mountain. 

AgalmatoUte is found in the southwest corner of Chatham. There is a large 
deposit occurring in Montgomery. It is popularly called soapstonc, and has the 
soapy feel of that mineral, but contains only 8.02 per cent, of magnesia. This 
substance has been an article of trade to New York on a large scale and for 
many years. 

Wlietstone. — Among the silicious argillites so abundant in the Huronian strata 
there are frequent beds of novaculite or whetstone. One of the best localities is 
in Orange County. Other quarries are found in Person County, in Anson, in 
Montgomery and adjoining counties, on the great Huronian Belt, and, in fact, 
almost every section of the State has its own quarries. 

Millstone and Grindstone Orits, &c. — The sandstone of the State is in many 
places well adapted to the purposes of grindstones, and during the war, while the 
foreign supply was cut off, they were largely so used. The Anson County quar- 
ries furnish a very fine grindstone and whetstone grit. The conglomerates of the 
triassic series, which are associated with and replace the sandstones above men- 
tioned, have been long and widely used for millstones. They have been principally 
obtained from Moore County, where they are of excellent quality, and they have 
been distributed from this point over a large number of the intervening counties 
to the Blue Ridge. Some of these stones have been in use for 50 years, and they 
are occasionally found to be nearly equal to the French buhr-stone. The coarse 
porphyroidal granites and gneisses which are scattered over so large a part of the 
State, are, however, the most common material for millstones ; and in the Eastern 
Section the shell rock is often partly or wholly silicified, forming a sort of buhr- 
stone, as in Georgia, and is well adapted to the same uses. In Madison County, 
in the Huronian slates on Laurel River, there is an irregularly laminated whitish 
quartz occurring in large veins, which is used for millstones, which are reported 
to be a good substitute for buhr-stone. 

Graphite. — This mineral is quite widely distributed in North Carolina, both in 
the Huronian and Laurentian formations. There are very fine beds in the museum 
from a number of counties — Person, Yancey, Catawba, Cleveland, Burke and 
others ; and there are beds of a more or less impure, slaty and earthy variety in 
several sections of the State, the principal of which are two — one in Gaston, Lin- 
coln and Catawba, and the other in Wake County. The Wake County beds are 
the most extensive as well as the best known graphite beds in the State. They 
extend in a northeast and southwest direction for a distance of 16 or 18 miles, 
passing two and a-half miles west of Raleigh. There are two beds apparently. 
The thickness is two to three, and occasionally four feet. 

Limestone. — Mitchell's Geology says that limestone has been discovered at 
three points in the primitive rocks in Stokes County, at one on the bank of the 
Yadkin, in Surry, and at several places in the southeastern part of Buncombe and 
Henderson. Small nodules and masses also have been found about Lincolnton. 
The limestone of King's Mountain is in a small tract of later primitive, bearing 
an intimate resemblance to the country around Charlotte, and like that, rich in 
veins of gold. This mineral is not as abundant in North Carolina as in many 
States, constituting, as has been seen, but an insignificant proportion of the mass 
of its rocky strata ; and yet its distribution is such, and such are its relations to 
existing and abundant means of transportation, that it is accessible to the greater 



NORTH CAROLINA. 137 

portion of the State. That part of the Eastern Region south of the Neuse River 
is abundantly supplied with eocene or shell limestone, and to the northern half of 
that section, both this source of supply is open, and the oyster-shell heaps of the 
sounds and bays round to Norfolk. 

Marble. — In the extreme west, in Macon and Cherokee, the limestone range, 
both on Nantehaleh and Valley Rivers, contains beds of very fine marble of 
various colors — white, pink, (or flesh-colored,) black, gray, drab and mottled. It 
is capable of a very fine polish, and will one day, when the difiiculties of trans- 
portation shall be overcome, acquire a high value in architecture, as well as in 
other ornamental arts. In this last connection, some of the serpentine beds may 
be mentioned as likely to come into use, and so to acquire a market value. 

Talc. — Foliated talc of a white or greenish white color is found in many of 
the chrysolite beds west of the Blue Ridge, in Clay County, Macon County, Jack- 
son County, Yancey County, Mitchell County, and other localities ; in sheets of 
three-quarters to one inch in thickness, and of a somewhat columnar structure, 
near Pilot Mountain, Surry County; fibrous talc with silky lustre, and of a white 
or green color, also compact crystalline white talc with a splintery structure, in 
■Cherokee County, and also in Macon County. Talc slate and coarse soapstone 
is found in many localities throughout the State. 

Serpentine. — Dr. Genth says that the massive are found in many localities. 
The best appears to come from Caldwell County. It has a dark greenish black 
color, and contains fine veins of the yellowish green fibrous and silky chrysolite, 
and admits of a fine polish. Greenish gray massive serpentine, also with seams 
of greenish and grayish white chrj^solite, is found in Caldwell County, at which 
place is also found the variety picrolite. Dark green serpentine has been observed 
in Forsyth and Wake Counties. A grayish or yellowish green serpentine occurs 
in the chrysolite beds of Macon, Jackson, Yancey, Mitchell and other counties. 
It results from the decomposition of the chrysolite. 

Baryte. — In Prof. Olmsted's report is found the following notice of the vein 
found in Orange County : " Three miles south of Hillsboro is a fine vein of a 
mineral called sulphate of barytes or heavy spar. This substance is not very 
uncommon, but it is rare to meet with it of such purity and elegance as at this 
place. It is beautifully white and shining." 

Marls. — Marl is very abundant in 25 counties in North Carolina, very widely 
-distributed, and of several kinds, the principal of which are four, viz : green sand, 
eocene, miocene and triassic. The former has generally but a small percentage of 
carbonate of lime— 5 to 30; the second usually 40 to 95; the third 20 to 60, and 
the fourth generally less than 50. The last is of little consequence as a fertilizer, 
because of the very limited extent of its outcrops, and it is scarcely used where 
abundant. These marls are more extensively exposed than elsewhere in the 
northwestern part of Wake County, and in the edge of Orange, between Morris- 
ville and Durham. Nothing better shows the need and the value of exploitation 
than the fact that, until very lately. North Carolina knew nothing of the valuable 
phosphate beds just introduced to the world by Charles W. Dabney, Jr., State 
Chemist, who has just issued a pamphlet with relation to these beds. I merely 
have space for a quotation as to their locality, and to say that lime is afforded 
thereby to a part of the State where it is most needed " Distribution. — Phosphate 
rock has been found so far, (March 1st, 1884.) in larger or smaller quantities, in 
Sampson, Duplin, Onslow, Pender, New Hanover, Bladen, Columbus and Bruns- 
wick Counties. The largest deposits now known are in Duplin and Sampson. 
The same rock probably extends into the southern part of Wayne County. Phos- 
phatic marls of great richness are known to exist besides in Greene, Lenoir, Pitt, 



138 NORTH CAROLINA 

Jones, Craven and Carteret Counties. It is likely that phosphate will be found 
in these counties/' 

Asbestos. — This is, says Prof. Kerr, one of the commonest associates also of 
the chrysolite beds heretofore mentioned, and it occurs also quite widely in the 
Laurentian rocks of the middle and western parts of the State. One of the best 
known localities in the State is that in Mitchell County. It is long, fibrous, white, 
and readily reduced to a pulp or mass of fine lint. An equally fine article is 
brought from the southern part of Jackson County. It is also found near Tryon 
Mountain, in Polk County. Another well-known locality is in Caldwell County. 
This is associated, like many others, with a serpentine rock. Specimens have 
been exhibited also from Ashe and from Yancey. This mineral occurs in many 
places from Warren to Jackson County. 

Soapstone. — This is a very common mineral in North Carolina. The most 
extensive beds of it are found in Cherokee and Macon, in immediate association 
with the marble range, and accompanying it throughout its whole extent, on 
Nantehaleh River, Valley River and Notteley. An analysis of this rock as it 
occurs on Nantehaleh gave 23.71 per cent, of magnesia, which is about the per- 
centage of pyrallolite. The variety rensselarite is found in Forsyth County, and 
probably also in the South Mountains in Burke County. 

Pyrite. — Pyrite is one of the most common minerals in North Carolina. It 
is not only found in globular crystalline masses in many of the marl beds of the 
eastern counties, but many of the gneissoid rocks and slates contain it in consid- 
erable quantities, and besides, it is found in almost every mine of the State. In 
the gold mines the associated pyrite is generally auriferous. Cubical crystals 
occur in Catawba and Gaston Counties. Combinations of ciibes and octahedra 
are found in Chatham County and in the Guilford County gold and copper mines. 
The pyritohedron, often in combination with cubical and octahedral planes, is 
found in Union County, Guilford County, Gaston County, Mecklenburg County,. 
&c. Large veins of compact pyrite occur in Gaston County. 

BUILDING STONES. 
There exists the greatest abundance of material for architectural and engi- 
neering uses over a large part of the State. Granite and gneiss are among the 
commonest rocks throughout its whole length, except in the coastward region, 
where it is overlaid by the tertiary and cretaceous beds. And the sandstones of 
the triassic— red and gray— as well as those of the Huronian, are available over 
considerable areas ; while the shell limestone of the eocene furnish a very fair 
building material to the sandy and alluvial coast region ; and the crystalline lime- 
stones and marbles of the west supply an ornamental building stone of great 
variety and beauty. Seventy-nine specimens of building stones have been sent 
from the State to the new National Museum at Washington. These embrace 
granite of every variety, (the beautiful Scotch granite included,) gneiss, soapstone,, 
talc, limestone, marble, fire-stone, lime-rock, sandstone of various shades and tex- 
ture, syenite and porphory. 

PRECIOUS STONES. 

In the United States, systematic mining for gems and precious stones is being 
carried on at only two places, viz : Paris, Maine, and Stoney Point, North 
Carolina. 

Diamonds have been repeatedly found in North Carolina. In every instance 
this gem was found associated with gold and zircons; sometimes with monozite 
and other rare minerals, in gravel beds resulting from gneissoid rocks ; but it has 
never been observed in the North Carolina itacolumite, or any debris resulting 
from its disintegration. 



NORTH CAROLINA , 139 

Beryl has been foand at several places in the State. 

Zircon abounds in the gold sands of Burke, McDowell, Rutherford, Caldwell, 
Mecklenburg and other counties ; also abundantly on the south side of the Blue 
Ridge, near Green River. 

Garnet is widely distributed throughout the State, and some very beautifuj 
crystals have been found. Burke, Caldwell and Cherokee Counties are taking the 
lead. The massive manganese garnet is abundant in Rutherford, Chatham, Stokes, 
Cabarrus, Lincoln, Gaston and Rockingham Counties. 

Agate. — Rough specimens very common in Cabarrus and Mecklenburg Coun- 
ties. Some very fine specimens of moss agate in Orange County. It is found in 
Granville County also. 

Opal.—\ number of gems of this species have been found in the State 
Within the last 13 months a large number have been picked up in Cabarrus 
County, some of them of much beauty and high market vame. 

Hiddenite — a rare and new gem of great value, limited to North Carolina and 
one county. It is of an emerald-green color. 

Emerald is found in the mica mines of Mitchell and Yancey Counties. 

Ruby. — Corundum, found as a gem in Clay and Macon, may also be found in 
other corundum localities in Jackson, Mitchell, Iredell, Gaston, &c. 

Sapphire, kyanite. — Best are found at Swauuanoa Gap and top of Black 
Mountain ; the common sort in Mitchell, Gaston and other counties. 

Bock Crystal, False Diamond, California Diamond. — Abundant in this State. 

In addition, it is worth while to mention that specimens of opalescent quartz 
occur in Cabarrus and elsewhere ; also malachite, carnelian, jasper, chalcedony, 
rutile, tourmaline, chrysolite, lazulite and smoky quartz ; so that this list of native 
gems is certain to be extended, and very considerably, too, whenever extensive 
mining operations are resumed. 

Of the entire list of real gems, nine have been found as such in this State ; 
and of the minerals which constitute these gems, all but one occur here ; and of 
minerals which furnish the semi-gems, a majority also occur in this State. This 
fact is explained just as the other broader fact of the occurrence of so wide a 
range of mineral species. It is due to the prevalence of the older rocks, which 
make up almost the whole of North Carolina geographically, outside of the over- 
mantling sands and gravels of the east. 

MANUFACTURES. 

As a manufecturing State, North Carolina has long been prominent, although 
her industrial interests have not. of course, ever attained the great magnitude 
reached by the principal Northern and Western States. Within the last few years 
there has been a very rapid increase in the manufacturing interests of this State, 
and in none of the Southern States is this growth of a better or more diversified 
character. In a few of the Southern States the amount of capital now being 
invested in industrial enterprises is larger than in North Carolina ; but this is 
mainly due to the establishment of comparatively few extensive iron works or 
industries of that character; while in North Carolina it is particularly noticeable 
that the aggregate of its new manufjictures is being made up of a great number of 
mills, Victories and shops of mo<lerate size, but covering almost every branch of 
manufacturing, denoting a healthy growth of a wide range of industries. 

In cotton manufacturing. North Carolina's many advantages have caused a 
very rapid development, and there are now between 90 and 100 mills, having an 
aggregate of 2i:>,3ri2 spindles and 3.548 looms, being an increase of 43 mills, 
110,595 spindles and 1,583 looms since the census of ]880, or an increase of nearly 
100 per cent, in the number of mills, and of over 100 per cent, in spindles. The 



140 



NORTH CAROLINA. 



abundant water-power of the State; its large production of cotton, furnisliiug 
raw material without the expense of heavy freights; its excellent climate and 
other advantages, assure a rapid growth of this industry in North Carolina 
Georgia and the two Carolinas are apparently in sharp but friendly competition 
as to which shall lead in cotton manufticturing. 

The vast timber resources of this State have naturally caused the erection of 
many saw mills, and in all sections of the State new mills are springing up ; but 
it will be many years yet before the almost boundlesss forests of virgin timber 
show signs of exhaustion. The timber resources of this State offer abundant 
facilities for unusually profitable investments. As North Carolina has many saw 
mills, so has she also many flour and grist mills, mainly of small capacity and of 
old-time machinery, though there are some most excellent roller-process mills 
producing very superior flour. The wheat crop of the State is of excellent 
quality, and there are good openings in the State for the erection of modern mills. 

The most rapid growth dur ng the last two years in any manufacturing 
interest has been in tobacco — a business of comparatively recent origin, at least as 
a leading industry. The peculiar excellence of North Carolina tobacco has caused 
an increasing demand from year to year from almost every part of the world, and 
with this increase, there has been a steady increase in the number of factories to 
meet it. It is only recently that experiment has demonstrated the fitness of the 
soil of a large part of the State for tol)acco growing, which, until within the last 
few years, had been confined almost wholly to a few counties. The progress of 
tobacco culture in North Carolina has been, without exception, marked by a 
steady improvement in the financial condition of the farmers, whose profits range 
from $100 to $400 an acre, and in the rapid development of all other interests ; in 
fact, tobacco has proved a bonanza to the whole State. Some idea of the increase 
in the tobacco trade of North Carolina may be gained from the fact that over 50 
tobacco factories were erected in that State during 1884, and that many others 
will be Iniilt during the present year. 

Woolen mills, wood-working establishments for furniture, spokes, handles, 
sashes, doors, blinds, &c., machine shops, and many other diversified industries, 
are of considerable extent and importance ; and while their growth has hardly 
been as marked as that of tobacco and cotton, yet it is sure and steady, and their 
productions largely help to swell the aggregate of the manufactures of the State. 

WOODS AND TIMBERS. 

The area of land covered with woods and timbers now standing in each of 
the counties of the State, as reported in " Hale's Woods and Timbers of North 
Carolina," will be found in the table hereto annexed : 



COUNTIES. 



WOODED AREA. 



Alexander One-half. 

Anson (3ne-third. 

Ashe Seven-tenths. 

Bladen Nine-tenths. 

Brunswick Two-thirds. 

Camden ; One-half. 

Caswell , One-half. 

Chatham One-third. 

Cherokee Four-fifths. 

Clay Five-sixths. 

Cleveland Six-tenths. 

Columbus Two-thirds. 

Currituck Three-fifths. 

Davidson Two-thirds. 

Davie One-third. 

Edgecombe One -half. 

Forsj'th. • One-third. 

Gaston.... Three-fifths. 

Gates Three -fourths. 

Graham Seven-eighths. 

Granville Six-tenths. 



COUNTIES. WOODED AREA. 

Greene One-half. 

Halifax Six-tenths. 

Haywood Four-fifths. 

Iredell One-half. 

Jackson Five-sixths 

Johnston Two-thirds. 

Lincoln Two-thirds. 

Macon Five-sixths. 

Madison Three-fourths. 

Mitchell Three-fourths. 

Montgomery Three -fourths. 

Moore One-half. 

Northampton One-half. 

Onslow Six-tenths. 

Orange One-third 

Pamlico Nine-tenths. 

Pender Two-thirds. 

Perquimans One-fourth. 

Person One-eighth. 

Pitt Three-fourths. 

Polk Three-fourths. 



NORTH CAROLINA. 141 

COUNTIES. WOODED AREA. COUNTIES. WOODED AREA. 

Randolph Five-sixths. Swain Five-sixths. 

Richmond Two-thirds. Tyrrell Seven-tenths. 

Robeson Two-thirds. Union One-third. 

Rockingham One-third. Vance One-tenth. 

Rowan One-third. Warren One half. 

Rutherford Three-fourths. Wayne Four-tenths. 

Sampson Six-tenths. Wilson Six-tenths. 

Surry Three-fourths. Yadkin One-half.* 

Forestry Bulletin No. 8. from the United States Census Office, gives the 
amount of merchantable pine — long-leaved pine {Pinus Australis) standing in 
fifteen counties, as follows : 

COUNTIES. NO. FEET. COUNTIES. NO. FEET. 

Bladen 288,000,000 New Hanover 96,000,000 

Brunswick 141,000,000 Onslow 34,000,000 

Chatham 448,000,000 Robeson 864,000,000 

Columbus 288,000,000 Sampson 602,000,000 

Cumberland 806,000,000 Wake 48,000,000 

Duplin 21,000,000 Wayne 40,000,000 

Harnett 486,000,000 

Johnston 563,000,000 Total 5,229,000,000 

Moore 504,000,000 

STOCK RAISING. 

The entire transmontane country is well fitted for this business. The culti- 
vated grasses flourish everywhere with even ordinary care. But it is in the north- 
western counties — particularly in the counties of Ashe, Alleghany, Watauga, 
Mitchell, Yancey, that all the conditions are found necessary for its perfect suc- 
cess. The soil throughout these counties is a deep rich loam, up to the summits 
of the mountains. The whole country is covered with a dense vegetation, 
amongst which will be found some of the largest timber in the United States, and 
as yet the forests are comparatively unbroken, because they have been inacces- 
sible to market. The clearing of the timber is a work of some difiiculty ; but 
when that is done the labor of the farmer is rewarded with the richest crops. 
After two or three crops are taken off, the land, if suffered to lie at rest, springs 
up spontaneously in timothy herbs, grass and other rich pasture grasses; and 
once established, the grass perpetuates itself upon the land. Nor is an entire clear- 
ing necessary to establsh the land in grass. If the undergrowth is removed, the 
trees thinned out, and the surface stirred and sown in orchard grass (Cock's foot), 
it flourishes luxuriantly, even while the forest trees are left standing. 

Its capacity as a grazing country has long been known. But formerly the 
cattle were left to the resources of nature, which, indeed, in such a country, were 
abundant and rich. Of late, attention has been turned to the breeding of fine 
stock, and some herds of cattle and flocks of sheep are found there which will 
compare with the best in Kentucky. This country is already penetrated by one 
railroad, and others are in course of construction. When fairly laid open to rail- 
road communication, it will offer — besides its rich mining interests and timbers — 
one of the finest fields for cattle and sheep breeding and for dairy products that 

the Union presents. 

SILK CULTURE. 

Mr. Edward Fasnach, of Raleigh, North Carolina, who speaks from a prac- 
tical knowledge of the business, says: Among the undeveloped resources of 
North Carolina, there are probably none deserving of more thoughtful considera- 
tion than silk culture. The mulberry, which supplies the food for the silk-worm, 
is indigenous, and grows in great abundance in almost every section of the State, 
and it attains its fullest development with scarcely any cultivation. Nor is the 
silk-giving quality of its leaves less noticeable; for wherever North Carolina 



*The reader must not forget that large areas of timber land have been sold in this State of late, 
and great inquiry is made for hard-wood lands there, and indeed elsewhere in the South. 



143 NORTH CAROLINA. 

grown silk has been put to a test, it has been found of most excellent quality, and 
equal to the best French and Italian. 

There is no branch of agriculture that offers so generous a reward for so little 
capital invested as silk culture. The making of a crop, from the hatching to the 
gathering of the silk, be the crop small or large, will consume Ijut six weeks' time. 
Moreover, the otherwise unemployed members of the family— as the women, the 
children, the aged, and even infirm — can here find profitable occupation. Nor is 
silk culture limited to the farm or country, but where there is a room and food for 
the silk-worm available, whether it be in town or city, silk can be raised. 

Our endless tracts of cheap and uncultivated lands, so well adapted to the 
growth of the mulberry, and our mild and equable climate, present strong induce- 
ments to French and Italian colonies of silk growers, with whom the culture of 
silk has become an hereditary occupation. 

EDUCATION. 

The Constitution sets apart a large extent of land and appropriates all moneys 
arising from certain specified sources for establishing and maintaining free public 
schools in the several counties of the State; furtl>er, it directs the appropriation 
of 75 per cent, at least of the State and county capitation tax for the same pur- 
pose. The monej's from these sources form a permanent fund for education which 
cannot be diverted. The legislation of the last few years shows a growing sense 
of this great interest. That of the session of 1881 was a marked advance on any 
that had gone before. In addition to the provisions specified above, a tax of 12^ 
cents was levied on every hundred dollars' worth of property and credits, and the 
tax on the poll was correspondingly increased 37^ cents, in aid of the education 
fund. The revenue from these sources was reckoned to be fully adequate to keep 
open the public schools for four months in the year. If the tax thus levied shcnild 
prove insufiicient to maintain one or more schools in each district for the period 
named, the County Commissioners are required to levy annually a special tax to 
sujiply the deficiency. The ages for admission to the public schools range from 
six to twenty-one years. 

The provision for higher education is ample. Private schools for both sexes 
are numerous. The principal institutions for the education of boys and girls are 
of the highest order. There is a State university, maintained in part l)y annual 
appropriations. Science and learning in their widest range are there taught by 
professors eminent in their several branches. Second only to the university are 
the denominational colleges of the State, each having a corps of learned pro 
fessors and tutors. 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 



The State of South Carolhia lies between north latitude 82° 4' 30" and 85° 
12', and longitude west from Washington 1° 80' and 6° 54'. The United States 
Census of 1880 makes its area 30,170 square miles. The coast is about 190 miles 
long. The State is broadly divided into the up-country and low-country. 

PHYSICAL AND AGRICULTURAL REGIONS. 

In addition to the two grand divisions of South Carolina into the up-country 
and low-country, it will facilitate the consideration of the agricultural character- 
istics of the State to treat of them under certain minor natural and parallel 
sub-divisions, which are quite well marked. These are as follows : 

I. The Coast Region. It coincides very nearly with the post pleiocene forma- 
tion, rarely extending inland more than ten miles from the shore line. It consists : 

1st. Of the Sea Islands lying south of Santee River, and containing about 800 
square miles. 

2d. The salt marshes, uncovered at low tide, bordering and intercalating with 
the Sea Islands, capable of being reclaimed, and embracing GOO square miles. 

8d. The continuous shore line noA'th of Santee River and Georgetown 
entrance, 300 square miles in extent. 

II. Tlie Lower Pine Belt^ or Savanna Region, lying inland and 'parallel iritli the 
Coast Region. It has a width of about 53 miles; attains a maximum elevation 
above the sea of 130 feet. It may be divided : 

1st. Into the region below the influence of the tides — the rice fields of South 
Carolina. 

2d. The region above tide-water, notable for its turpentine farms and its 
cattle ranges. 

III. The Upper Pine Belt, or the Central Cotton Belt, having a icidth of 20 to 40 
miles. It is covered icith a groicth of long leaf pine, mixed with oak and hickory. The 
soil consists of a light sandy loam, underlaid by red and yellow clays. It has an 
elevation above the sea of from 130 to 250 feet. Large inland swamps, bays and 
river bottoms of unsurpassed fertility, covering 5,500 square miles, are interspersed 
among the two regions last named. 

IV. The Red Hills are immediately north of the last region. They have an 
elevation of 800 to COO feet above the sea. The soil is red clay and sand, and 
there is a heavy growth of oak and hickory. They embrace the range of hills 
extending from Aiken County, through Orangeburg to Sumter, where they arc 
known as the High Hills of Santee, and also the ridge lands of Edgefield, famous 
for their fertility. 

Y. Tlie Sand Hill Region. A remarkable chain of sand hills, attaining an 
elevation above the sea of GOO to 700 feet, and extending across the State from 
Aiken to Chesterfield Counties. 



144 SOUTH CAROLINA. 



VI. The Piedmont Region includes that portion of the State known as the 
upper country. It has a mean elevation above the sea level of 400 to 800 feet. 
Its soils are : 

1st. The cold gray lands, overlying for the most part the clay slates. 
2d. The gray sandy soils, from the decomposition of granite and gneiss. 
3d. The red hornblende lands. 

4th. The trappean soils, known as flat-woods meadow or black-jack lands in 
various sections. 

VII. Tlte Alpine Region is the extreme northwestern extension of the rocks 
and soils of the region just mentioned, difl"ering from the former by its more 
broken and mountainous character, and by its greater elevation, ranging from 900 
feet to 3,430 feet at Mount Pinnacle, near Pickens C. H., the highest point in the 
State. 

The Sea Islands are the great seat of the production of the long staple cotton. 
They are very slightly elevated above sea level. Soil — fine sandy loam, resting on 
a sub-soil of yellow sand or yellow clay. There are flats reclaimed by drainage 
very fertile, with soil of black vegetable mould of great fertility resting on fine 
blue clay and marl. Climate rather equable and moist. Health better than is 
supposed. The olive and orange trees bring their fruit to full perfection on the 
South Carolina coast. Once only during a period of 16 years prior to 1880 were 
the orange trees injured by frost. 

THE LOWER PINE BELT, OR SAVANNA REGION. 

Contiguous to and immediately inland from the coast region lies the Lower 
Pine Belt, or Savanna Region of South Carolina. Northward it may be bounded 
by a line dividing Hampton County nearly in half, leaving the Savannah Rver in 
Lawton Township, running east across the county and through Broxton and 
Warren Townships, in the northwest corner of Colleton County, to Orangeburg 
County, including the townships of Branchville and Cow Castle ; thence along the 
northern boundary of Charleston County to the Santee River. Leaving the Santee 
River about Wright's Bluflf, this line traverses Clarendon County to its northeast 
corner, crosses Lynches River, descends that river to a point opposite wiiere Catfish 
Creek empties into the Great Pee Dee, follows that stream to Barker's Creek, passes 
up it to Reedy Creek, down it to the Little Pee Dee, and up that river to the 
North Carolina line. The section thus bounded includes the half of Hampton 
County, nearly all of Colleton, two townships in Orangeburg, all but the northwest 
corner of Clarendon, the southwest portion of Marion, the whole of Williamsburg, 
and all Charleston, Georgetown and Horry Counties not lying on the coast, and 
comprises nearly one-third of the entire State. 

The general appearance of the country is low and flat. The uniform level of 
the surface is scarcely broken anywheie, except here and there on the banks of 
the streams by the occurrence of slightly rolling lands. Eight large rivers, 
receiving all the w^ater that falls in South Carolina, and a large proportion from 
the water shed of North Carolina, besides several smaller rivers and innumerable 
lesser streams, traverse this region, and furnish more than 1,000 miles of navigable 
waters. The maximum elevation of this region above tide-water is reached at 
Branchville, on the South Carolina Railway, and is 134 feet. Much of this country 
is underlaid with marl and cretaceous rocks. The valuable phosphate rock is in 
this division, vast deposits being near Charleston. It contains 55 to Gl per cent, 
of phosphate of lime; carbonate of lime, 5 to 10, &c. There is a very large 
business in mining the rock at that city and ner;r it. 

The soils of the Lower Pine Belt (7,000 square miles of uplands) comprehend 
three leading varieties : 1st. A sandy loam, with a white sandy sub-soil. 2d. A 



SOUTH CAROLINA. I45 

sandy loam, with a yellow sub-soil. 3d. A sandy loam, with a clay sub-soil. The 
clay is generally yellow, but sometimes it is red. The characteristic growth of 
the uplands is the long leaf pine. The Savanna Region is thickly grown with 
small cypress. Tlie uplands have scarcely any undergrowth, except here and 
there the scrub oak and the wire and drop seed grass. The magnolia, tulip tree, 
sweet and black gum, white and red bays, the white oak, the black walnut, the 
elm, hickory and cypress, are among the largest and most conspicuous trees of the 
swamps. 

CLIMATE. 

Almost everywhere there are found small tracts— islands, as it were— of dry, 
sandy soil heavily timbered with the long leaf pine, which is a barrier to the 
mvasion of malaria. These retreats furnish places of residence as healthful as are 
to be found anywhere. Rice is the most characteristic crop. Both upland and 
lowland are raised. Lowland rice farms that sold before the war at from $200 to 
$300 per acre, may now be bought at from $20 to $30, or less. Difficulty of 
obtammg labor is the explanation. Profits in rice raising good ; an average yield 
per acre-20 bushels-worth $35.30. Price of land in this belt ranges from 50 
cents to $10 an acre. Sugar-cane, rice, corn . cotton, sweet potatoes, oats, common 
crops, cane and native grasses are the chief agricultural products. A good range 
for stock is to be had. Water mostly free-stone. 

THE UPPER PINE BELT 

lies between an elevation above the sea of 130 and 250 feet. It crosses the State 
in a northeasterly direction, from the Savannah River to the North Carolina line 
It comprises, generally, the counties of Barnwell, Orangeburg, Sumter, Darlino-ton 
Marlboro and Marion. Tlie northern half of Hampton and the northwest corner 
of Colleton are included in it. To the south it is bounded by the Lower Pine Belt 
where the flat, open, piney woods, with an undergrowth of coarse grasses .gradu- 
ally gives place to the higher and more rolling pine lands, with an undergrowth 
of oak and hickory. To the north the Upper Pine Belt sweeps round the feet of 
the interrupted range of high red hills traversing the State, or rises in the 
intervals of this range, to the still more elevated sand hills. 

The land is level, without being flat, and is sufficiently rolling to insure^ood 
drainage for the most part. The watercourses rising in this region, or in the sand 
hill region above, are clear and rapid, while the larger rivers passing through it 
that come from the mountains are turbid. There are also many smaller streams 
with fine water powers. Pure, cool water is found in an abundant supply gener- 
ally, at from 10 to 20 feet depth. 

SOILS. 

The Upper Pine Belt contains over 6,000 square niiles, about one-sixth of 
wliich is swamp, and the remainder uplands. The uplands consist of a fine, light, 
gray, sandy loam resting on a sub-soil of red or yellow clay. In the east— in 
Marlboro and Marion— it is usually found at only three to four inches ; in the 
west it is deeper. 

The swamps are : 1st. The river swamps. This soil is a heavy alluvial loam, 
mulatto-colored, and sometimes mixed with fine sand and mica. These lands are 
very fertile and subject to overflow. The other swamp lands are known as bays, 
or upland swamps and creek bottoms. They are found on smaller streams and'in 
bodies of different sizes in the pine lands. Soil— black, decomposed vegetable 
matter. They are not suitable for cotton, but produce good corn. 



CLIMATE. 



The Upper Pine Belt is a peculiarly healthful region. There are no prevailing 
diseases, unless it be a mild type of malarial fever during autumn along the river 



146 SOUTH CAROLINA. 

swamps. The upland swamps, not being subject to overflow, and resting on sand, 
are not troubled with these comphiints when drained and cultivated. The swamp 
woods are cypress, white oak, gum, ash, hickory, beech, elm and black walnut 
Besides the pine, there is on the upland, dogwood, hickory, and eight or ten 
varieties of oak, among which are the forked leaf black-jack, indicative here of a 
dry and thirsty soil, and the round leaf black-jack, showing a moister and more 
fruitful soil. The olive, the Italian chestnut and pine, varieties of the mulberry, 
the tig, peaches, apples, pears, pomegranates, plums, pecan nuts, English walnuts, 
grapes, &c., are successfully grown. 

PRODUCTIONS. 

The staple crops are cotton, corn, oats, rye, (the Southern variet},) and wheat 
to a limited extent, peanuts 3'ielding an average of 40 bushels to the acre, sweet 
potatoes and rice. The culture of indigo and tobacco has been abandoned, though 
once found profitable. 

Shad in the sprmg, and sturgeon and rock-fish in the summer and autumn, 
ascend all the rivers in this region, except that shad never enter the waters of the 
Little Pee Dee, notwithstanding they are clear and deep, like those of the Edisto. 
The Pee Dee is the last river to the south, where herring are caught in large 
numbers. 

The Upper Pine Belt has a population of 221,409. The area of tilled land is 
948,521 acres. More than one-third is in cotton. 418,417 acres are in grain of all 
kinds, including corn, small grain and rice. 

The farms number 19,640. The grain crop in 1880, according to the census, 
was 3,631,303 bushels — an increase of one and a-half millions on the return of 
1870. This includes corn, small gr;dn and rice, and constitutes 21 per cent, of the 
grain crop of the State. Cotton planting is done during the month of April. 

Lands vary much in price in this belt — from three to fifty dollars per acre, 
according to soil, location, improvements, «fcc. In a good many localities there 
are no lands for sale. Land rents from one to three dollars an acre. 

THE RED HILL REGION. 

The very gradual slope of the Upper Pine Belt having attained an elevation 
of 200 to 250 feet above the sea level, an irregular aud somewhat interrupted line 
of high hills is encountered. These hills rise 200 to 300 feet above the plane of 
the Upper Pine Belt in the distance of a few miles, and not unfrequently this 
elevation is attainea in traversing a few hundred yards. To the south and east 
extensive views over the gentle and irregular slope of the lower country are 
exposed from the summit of these declivities; to the north and west a sort of 
table-land stretches back, and gradually merges into the higher and more exten- 
sive Sand Hill Region of the State. 

The general trend of these hills corresponds pretty nearly with that of the 
other regions of the State. Starting on the Savannah River, near Hamburg, iliey 
extend across the southern and wc stern portion of Aiken and the northern town- 
ships of Barnwell Counties. Following the northern boundary of Orangeburg, 
they acquire their greatest width in that county around Fort Motte, near the 
confluence of the Congnree and the Wateree Rivers. West of the Santee River 
their course is more to the north, and they constitute that remarkable line of bills 
traversing Sumter County, long known as the " High Hills of Santee." Included 
in this region is also a body of lands in Edgefield County known as the "Ridge," 
which lie along the Augusta and Charlotte Railroad. Altliough the latter are 
above the outcrop of the granite rocks, being ccmtinuous witli the Red Hills, and 
resembling them closely in physical features and soil, they are described with them. 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 147 

While these Reel Hills form a well marked belt across the State below the 
Sand Hills, from the southwestern part of Aiken County to the northeastern 
corner of Sumter, they are not continuous, but are interrupted at greater or less 
intervals by the protrusion of the Sand Hills. Mills' description of them east of 
the Santee River will give an idea of how this occurs. He says: "They take 
their rise about nine miles north of Nelson's Ferry, on the Santee, and form that 
fine body of brick mould land (3d Sup. Dist., E. D. 14 and 1.^,; in the Richardson 
settlement. After continuing eight miles, they become suddenly sand hills a little 
above Manchester. At the end of 11 miles they again become red land, which 
continues to Buck Creek, nine miles above Statesburg. These hills up to this 
point appear to hang over the Wateree Swamps; but now they diverge and turn 
to the northeast, with one ridge in the middle forming a backbone, breaking off 
into hills towards the Wateree, and sloping off gradually towards Black River. 
At Buck Creek the hills again become sandy, which gradually increases for 15 or 
16 miles, to Bradford Springs. A little above this place they join the Sand Hills 
of the middle country." If these alternations were carefully traced, it is probable 
they would be found to be due to removal by denudation of the red clay loam 
from the slopes of sand and gravel that rise in the Sand Hills ; for the sienna- 
colored clay loam, characteristic of this region, seldom has a depth greater than 
30 feet, and is underlaid by beds of sand and gravel. 

SOILS. 

The reddish loam of this region presents an appearance somewhat similar to 
that of the soils derived from the hornblende rocks in the upper country, but it is 
not so tenacious and waxy. Although, when not cultivated, it becomes very hard 
in dry weather, in wet weather, owing to the large amount of sand it contains, 
the intervals when it cannot be worked are short. Vegetable matter rots rapidly 
in it, and for this reason long manures (as composts) are better adapted to it than 
fertilizers. The former are rapidly incorporated and well retained; and there is 
no soil that responds so well or is so capable of great improvement under treat- 
ment with stable and lot manures as these. Worked without manure they rapidly 
consume themselves and become unproductive. 

CLIMATE. 

Having an elevation of 400 to 500 feet and upwards above the sea level, the 
Red Hills enjoy a dryer and more bracing atmospliere than the regions to the 
south. While it is a notable fact that they are not so subject to the severer 
influences of storm winds as the lower lying lands, the ordinary movements of 
the air are more perceptible there than in the loAver grounds. Thus, during the 
extremest heats of summer, there is rarely a night when the refreshing influence 
of a gentle south wind is not felt, blowing with a uniformity as though it had 
directly traversed the 70 miles intervening between these slopes and the ocean. 
Owing to this movement of the air and to its greater dryness, late spring frosts 
are of less frequent occurrence here than they are further south; nor is vegetation 
destroyed by cold so early in the fall. In ascending these hills in the autumn and 
early winter, at a certain elevation a stratum of warm air is encountered which 
seems to cling about the hill-tops, while a much chillier night air fills the bottoms. 
These advantages at one time made this region famous for its fruits. During the 
severest winter of the last half century the banana and the sago palm in the open 
ground, protected only by a few handfuls of cotton seed on their roots, though 
cut by the frost, retained suflicient vitality to throw up vigorous shoots the 
ensuing spring. This greater length of growing season has also made attempts 
at growing Sea Island cotton and sugar-cane more successful here than lower 



148 SOUTH CAROLINA. 

down. The whole region is remarkably healthy ; no taint of malaria approaches 
it, and it is in an unusual degree free from epidemics of every description. For 
these reasons many localities here, especially the "High Hills of Santee," were 
formerly much frequented as summer and health resorts by planters from all parts 
of the State, as well as from other Southern States. 

GROWTH. 

The long leaf pine thins out on these hills, and is sometimes replaced by 
short leaf pine of large growth. The characteristic growth, however, is oak and 
hickory of large size. Red oaks attain very large size. 

The Red Hill Region contains about 1,630 square miles and has a population 
of 44,866. 56 per cent, are colored. The area of tilled land is 234,682 acres. The 
number of farms is 4,568, averaging for the whole 228 acres to the farm. 

In grain of all sorts 114,425 acres are planted, yielding 804,443 bushels. In 
other days, when well manured, some of these lands yielded 34 bushels of wheat 
per acre. Lands near railroads range from $15 to $40 per acre. Large tracts by 
no means inferior to those already mentioned, except as regards accessibility, are 
offered at from three dollars to ten dollars an acre. These lands produce every 
variety of crop, and are well adapted to cotton. Not one-fourth of these lands 
are in cultivation. 

THE SAND HILL REGION. 

The Sand Hill Region of South Carolina stretches across the State from the 
Savannah River, opposite to Augusta, to the intersection of the North Carolina 
line by the Great Pee Dee River. The average distance of its lower border — 
among the Red Hills — from the sea is about 95 miles. Its length is 155 miles. Its 
width is variable. The maximum, which is reached in Lexington County, is about 
30 miles, and the average width will hardly reach 20 miles. It occupies the larger 
portion of five counties, viz : Aiken, Lexington, Richmond, Kershaw and Ches- 
terfield. The L^pper Pine Belt, ascending the eastern bank of the Congarce River 
in Richland County until it touches the granite rocks of the Piedmont Region at 
Columbia, divides the Sand Hill Region into two portions — an eastern and a 
western portion. 

The physical features of this region are of a monotony aptly characterized 
by the term "pine barren" applied to it. The hills slope up from the Savannah 
River to a plateau having an elevation at Aiken C. H. of about 600 feet above the 
sea level. Beyond the North Edisto River the gradual ascent is resumed, until 
an elevation exceeding 700 feet is reached in Piatt Springs Township, in eastern 
Lexington, whence there is a rapid descent of more than ."00 feet in a short 
distance to the Congaree River. East of this stream the rise is again gradual, 
and the maximum elevation is reached on the northeast border of Richland 
County, where the hills again descend abruptly to the Wateree River. Beyond 
this river there is no data as to levels, except that on the water shed of the Great 
Pee Dee there is evidence as to extensive denudation of the surface to a depth of 
at least 150 feet. 

SOILS. 

The characteristic of the soils of this region is the loose, rounded sands 
which form their chief constituent. The organic matter which it contains consists 
largely of charcoal, resulting from burning off the woods, principally the pine 
straw (leaves of the pine.) Occasionally there are rounded hills of very fine sand 
of a dazzling whiteness, of such purity that they seem just to have emerged from 
the waters or to have been blown together by the winds on the seashore. There 
are, however, many elevated flats, which, under good culture and manuring, give 
excellent crops ; and in the vales the soil is often productive. Since the intro- 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 149 

duction of fertilizers, level lauds in the neighborhood of tl)e South Carolina 
Raihvay which sold in 1860 for three dollars an acre, have sold for $30, and even 
as high as $40 an acre. Throughout tliis region thousands of acres equal and 
superior to these, though not immediately upon a railroad, are for sale at one 
dollar to five dollars an acre. Under high culture 30 bushels of wheat per acre 
have been raised in this soil. 

GROWTH AND PRODUCTIONS. 

The growth is almost exclusively long leaf pine, and on the more barren 
ridges even this tree becomes stunted, and sometimes, on the higher and finer 
sand crests, yields its place to the New Jersey tea-plant, which alone covers the 
dazzling whiteness of the sands. Usually, however, there is a heavy growth of 
long leaf pine, and this tree here, almost on its northern limit in the State, attains 
its highest perfection, not only as regards size, (trees of three feet and four feet in 
diameter being not uncommon,) but also as to the quality of its wood, which has 
more heart and is more resinous than elsewhere. There is often an undergrowth 
of the forked leaf black-jack, and where there is a suspicion of moisture in the 
soil, this is replaced by the round leaf black-jacK — a sure indication here of better 
sod. Besides the staple products of cotton, corn, the small grains, peas and 
potatoes common to this latitude, these soils have been thought specially adapted 
to other crops, such as peanuts, Palma Christi, sorghum, watermelons, vegetables, 
scuppernong grapes and peaches. 

THE CLIMATE 

of the Sand Hills is dry, tonic, sunny and stimulating, and entirely free from 
malarial influences. They have long been a resort during winter for consump- 
tives from northern latitudes, and during the summer months for persons from the 
lower country of the State. Aiken, a town in that area, has for years been very 
celebrated as a resort for health. 

The area of the Sand Hill Region is estimated at 2,441 square miles. The 
population is 28,612. The area of tilled land is 151,3.59 acres. It is divided 
among 4,238 farms, giving 35 acres of tilled land to the farm. 59 per cent, of the 
population is colored. 

THE PIEDMONT REGION. 

The Piedmont Region of South Carolina coincides very nearly with what is 
known as the upper country of the State. It includes the whole of eight counties, 
to wit : Abbeville, Anderson, Newberry, Laurens, Union, Fairfield, Chester and 
Lancaster. It also embraces the northern portion of Edgefield and Lexington, 
and the northwestern portions of Richland, Kershaw and Chesterfield. The 
southern parts of Oconee and Pickens, and the southern and larger portions of 
Greenville, Spartanburg and York, are within its limits. A line drawn from a 
point on the Savannah River three miles above Hamburg to Columbia, and 
running thence northeast to where the Great Pee Dee River crosses from North 
into South Carolina, defines, in a general way, its southern border. Its northern 
boundary follows, in the main, the direction of the Atlanta and Charlotte Air 
Line Railroad, which lies on the edge of the Alpine Region, just north of the one 
under consideration. 

The physical features of this portion of the State entitle it to the name of the 
Piedmont Region. Its rocks are so similar to those of the Blue Ridge Mountains, 
that, though they have been broken down, levelled off and worn away bv exposure 
during the countless ages, to the vicissitudes of the seasons, they are and always 
have been the foot-hills of the Apalachian range; while the broken and moun- 
tainous region to the north, usually spoken of as the Piedmont Country, might 
be better called the Alpine or Sub- Alpine Region of the State. 



loO SOUTH CAROLINA. 

The foce of tlie country presents a gently undulating plain, which becomes 
more rolling as it approaches the rivers and larger streams, and Is finally hilly 
and broken above the bottoms and narrow low grounds through which the 
numerous water-courses find their passage. The mean elevation of the Columbia 
and Augusta Railroad where it passes along the southern borders of the region is 
575 feet. That of the Air Line Railroad, in S(mth Carolina, lying to the north of 
it, and almost wholly within the Alpine Region, is 910 feet. Between these two 
lines, therefore, a distance of some 90 miles, there is a general rise of the surface 
of 335 feet, or less than four feet to the mile. This is a gentler slope than that of 
the tertiary plane or low country. While the general rise in the surface is less 
than that in the low country, the rise in the beds of the streams, owing to the 
resistance of the underlying rocks, which prevent the water from deepening their 
channels, is much greater. This adds largely to their availability as water-powers 
for mtuiufactures. 

The Savannah River is now navigable for pole-boats carrying 50 bales of 
cotton for 154 miles above Augusta. The Saluda River is navigable for 84 miles 
above Columbia, where it unites with the Broad to form the Congaree River, for 
the same kind of boat. The Broad River is navigable for 113 miles in South 
Carolina, above Columbia, and for 28 miles more in North Carolina, for tliis class 
of bouts. It has a total length of 175 miles. The Catawba River has a fall of 
325 feet in the 55 miles of its course in South Carolina. Its banks are 300 to 3.000 
feet apart, and from 10 to 100 feet high. Above Rocky Mounts in Cliester, there is a 
fall at one point of 50 feet in 400 yards. It has a total length of 272 miles, and its 
source is 2,5C0 feet above the level of the sea. 

The data above given were obtained by surveys made in the dryest season of 
a very dry year, and therefore represent these streams at extreme low water. 
Tliis low stage of the water prevails during October and November. At other 
seasons the volume of water would be, on the average, two or three times as 
great. The rivers are subject to freshets, rising 20 to 30 feet above low water 
mark, this rise being greatest where they issue from the Piedmont Region. 

SOILS. 

The area of land in the Piedmont Region whose culture is impeded by the 
rocks prevalent there is comparatively insignificant. This is due to the remark- 
able extent and depth of the disintegration of these rocks. 

The granite soils occupy by far the largest area. These soils are characterized 
by two distinct names: 

1st. The gray, sandy soils occupy the ridges and levels, and have been formed 
by the gradual separation of the silicious and argillaceous materials found in tlie 
debris of the decomposing rocks that underlie them. This gives a light, loose, 
warm, sandy loam, varying in depth from three to eighteen inches, and fine or 
coarse, according to the grain of the rock from which they are derived. The 
sub-soil is red or yellow clay. Such soils are of easy culture, respond readily to 
the use of commercial fertilizers, and are well adapted for cotton. For these 
reasons they are much more highly esteemed than formerly. 

2d. The red clay loams are the prevailing soils of the hilly and broken 
country. Occupying slopes of greater or less declivity, the loose sand has been 
washed away as fast as it has been released from the tenacious clay. The washing 
of these hills is not so destructive of their fertility as it would have been if the 
soil were not formed from rocks rotting in situ, and thus including at every depth 
all the numerous and varied elements of parent rocks. 

The hornblendic soils are a variety of these red clay soils, derived from 
granite and gneiss rock, traversed by seams of hornblende. They are dark in 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 151 

color, and of a more brilliant red. They occur in Ei.gefield, about Horn's Creek, 
and more extensively in Newberry, especially between the Court House and 
Asheford's Ferry, extending thence into Fairfield. They form excellent cotton 
lands, and are well suited to the culture of all the grains. 

The clay slates underlie a soil that is characterized as a cold gray soil. In 
color they vary from gray to yellow and brown. The sub-soil is, for the most 
part, of yellow clay, but sometimes it is reddish. These soils are better adapted 
for small grains, and especially for oats, than for cotton. They cover an extensive 
area in Edgefield, and reach along the northern border of the tertiary ; thence to 
Chesterfield. 

The trappean soils traverse York and Chester Counties in a northeasterly 
direction, coinciding very nearly with that of the Charlotte and Columbia Rail- 
road. They give rise to a distinctly marked body of lands known as the " rolling 
black-jack lands" and as black-jack flats. The latter are the most extensive and 
better defined in their characteristics. The lands are level ; the streams slow and 
tortuous, with low banks. The soil is a rich dark brown chocolate color; some- 
times jet black. The sub-soil is a yellow, waxy clay, exceedingly tenacious, and 
where the rocks are not thoroughly decomposed, it assumes an olive green color. 
Beneath it the decomposed, and lower down the undecomposed, rock is found, 
called here " iron rock " or " negro head." The level configuration ot the surface 
and the impervious nature of the sub-soil interfere naturally witli drainage — an 
interference, however, not at all beyond the remedy of art, as the fall for properly 
conducted drains and outlets is ample. But because they require drainage, these 
lands which, from their general appearance and from their chemical analysis, 
should be ranked as among the very best in the State, have received little atten- 
tion. Corn and cotton planted on them turns yellow — " frenches," as it is termed. 
When, however, thorough drainage has been efl'ected and stable manure used, 
they have proved very productive and enduring. 

The "rolling black-jack" lands, as might be inferred from their name, have a 
better natural drainage, and have long been highly prized for their productiveness. 

Rich bottom lands are to be found scattered along the numerous rivers, 
creeks and branches that everywhere traverse this well- watered region. 

CLIMATE. 

The shorter seasons and lower temperatures of the Piedmont Region, as 
compared with those lying immediately south of it, are but slightly attributable 
to differences of elevation or of latitude, these differences being themselves slight. 
In so far as it obtains, it results, perhaps, from greater nearness to the mountains, 
and, as affecting agriculture, still more to the heavier clay soils and sub-soils, 
more retentive of moisture, and therefore colder and later in spring than the 
lighter sandy loams of the lower country. Cotton planting is about 10 days later 
than in the Upper Pine Belt. Cotton blooms are also later, but by a lesser period; 
and the same is true of the opening and picking season of the plant — showing 
that, with a later start, it grows faster, passing more rapidly through its various 
stages to maturity. This region, however, does not seem to be much affected by 
that variableness of temperature common to localities in proximity to mountain 
ridges. This is shown by the singular exemption of certain localities here from 
the injurious effects of late spring frosts. Thus, on Rich Hill, in Pacolet Town- 
ship, Spartanburg — a ridge six miles broad between the Pacolet and Fair Forest 
Rivers — fruit has been injured by late frosts but once in 40 years, Loc^ities in 
Union also enjoy this immunity in nearly the same deyree. In the absence of other 
records, some idea of the temperature may be formed by observations on the 
temperatures of springs, assuming that this temperature approximates the annual 



153 SOUTH CAROLINA. 

mean. Lieber states, as the result of a number of observations, that the sprinojs 
of the Alpine Region have a temperature of 55° to 58° Fahrenheit ; those on a 
line passing through the centre of the Piedmont Region, one of 58° to 61.5° Fahr., 
and below this line, one of 61.5° to 66° Fahr. The only accessible records of rain- 
fall are those published by the Smithsonian Institution, May, 1881. They give an 
average annual rainfall in this region of 52.34 inches, varying from 44.05 inches 
to 60.13 inches. This gives a greater annual rainfall for this region than for those 
south of it, and places it, in this regard, next to the areas of greatest annibal 
pi'ecipitation in the United States. The spring rains vary from 13 inches to 15 
mches, and in this regard it holds the same relations as in the former to the 
regions south of it and to the United States. The summer rains are 10 inches to 
14 inches less than in the regions south of it, and third or midway between the 
areas of greatest and of least summer precipitation in the United States. The 
autumn rains are eight inches to ten inches, and in the counties east of Broad 
River they are 10 inches to 12 inches — being about the same as in the region to 
the south, and midway between the areas of greatest and least autumn precipita- 
tion in the United States. The winter rains are 10 inches to 14 inches — something 
more than in the lower country, and a little above midway between the areas of 
greatest and of least winter precipitation in the United States. In the whole 
year, and in each season of the year, the rainfall is less than in the Alpine Region 
north of it. 

In point of health fulness this region leaves little to be desired. When first 
settled the country was entirely free from all malarial influences. Subsequently, 
during the period when the first clearing of the forest was in active progress, the 
hitherto clean-bordered channels of the streams became obstructed, in part with 
fallen timber and brush from the clearings, and in part by the washings of the 
hill sides, under the injudicious use of the plow. These washings occurred to 
such an extent as to alter the original level of the surface, and to pile the dirt up 
around the trees in the bottoms until they were killed. Such operations were 
attended with the prevalence of malarial fevers. Later, the uplands having been 
cleared and partly exhausted, attention was directed to the drainage and reclaim- 
ing of the low grounds for agricultural purposes, and the healthfulness of the 
locality was restored. It has thus happened that, with the extension of the 
settlements, a belt of malarial influences has moved forward with them, vanishing 
below and advancing above, until it reached the wooded slopes of the mountains 
before disappearing. ^^^,,.,„„ 

^ ^ ° GROWTH. 

The original forest has disappeared almost altogether, and has been replaced 
by younger oaks of small growth, by underbrush, and by the loblolly pines of the 
abandoned fields. The cane has gone likewise. The wild pea vine is no longer 
known, though since the stock has been penned, under the new fence law, a plant 
supposed to be it has appeared in the open woodlands, with several otlier grasses 
not observed before. The prairies have become covered with a growth of heavy- 
bodied post-oak and black-jack. The latter, in turn, has now given place to the 
cedar in Chester. The chestnut has been dying out for 50 years. In some 
localities where it once flourished it has entirely gone, and in others the large 
dead stems and stumps are the only vestige of this valuable and stately tree. The 
chinquapin is also sickening and dying, and the chestnut oak likewise. During 
some years past somewhat similar symptoms of disease have appeared in the red 
and black oak, and fears on this account have been entertained The distinctive 
growth of the region is the short leaf pine, with a large variety of oaks and 
hickories. On the water-courses, willow, beech, birch, black walnut, ash, poplar 
and gum abound. In sections of Laurens, the long leaf, formerly unknown in 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 158 

this section, Las, within the last 10 years, appeared among the old field pines. 
The sycamore sometimes attains a great size. The tulip tree also is often very 
larg ! The sugar maple is found, and another maple of larger growth, and 
yiel I ing a superior sugar, both as to quantity and quality, is known in Lancaster 
under the name of the sugar tree. The country is particularly commended as a 
grass country, and will produce fine hemp, tobacco, wheat, corn, grapes, oats, &q. 

This region embraces about 10,425 square miles, or nearly one-third of the 
entire State. The population numbers 395,04.3— the increase since the census of 
1870 being 30 per cent. The percentage of colored population varies greatly in 
the diflerent counties, being as high as 70 in Fairfield and as low as 34. in Spartan- 
burg ; the average is 58. Of the 6,672,000 acres of land in this region, 50 per 
cent, is in wood, 22 per cent, is in old fields, and 28 per cent, is tilled. There are 
35,591 farms. This is an increase of at least 80 per cent, since 1870, and of 180 
per cent, since 1800, while the increase in the decade preceding that — a time of 
much prosperity — did not much exceed one per cent. 56 per cent, of the farms 
are worked by renters and 44 per cent, by owners. The tilled land is 1,861,932 
acres — an increase of 56 per cent, since 1870. 48 per cent, is in grain of all kinds, 
40 per cent, in cotton, and 12 per cent, is in gardens, orchards, fallows, and all 
other crops. The crops are : Cotton— 274,318 bales, against 94,494 in 1870. It 
constitutes 53 per cent, of the crop of the State on less than one-third of its area. 
The average for the region is 166 pounds of lint cotton per acre. The grain crop 
is 7,731,528 bushels— an increase of 139 per cent, on the crop of 1870. The 
average yield for the whole region is nine bushels per acre. Per capita of the 
population the yield is 19 bushels, which is four bushels more than in 1870. This 
leaves a deficiency. But the attempt to raise farm supplies is pretty general, and 
is reported as increasing, except in Laurens, where it remains the same, and in 
Abbeville, where it is decreasing. Usually this attempt is in so far successful as 
to provide a considerable portion of the subsistence for farm hands and stock. 
Bacon is largely imported from the North and West, and sometimes hay and corn 
also for farm use. The larger portion of the lands is held in tracts of from 200 
to 500 acres. On three-fourths of the farms mixed husbandry is practiced, and 
on the remaining fourth attention is bestowed almost exclusively on cotton. The 
system of credits and advances prevails to a large extent, consuming from one- 
third to three-fifths of the crop before it is harvested. The statement is general 
that this is on the decrease, and is correct in so far that a larger amount is being 
produced at home, and a larger number of purchases for cash are being made by 
farmers since 1876. Field labor is performed exclusively by natives, and chiefly 
by colored laborers. In some counties the number of white laborers prepon- 
derates. The prevailing wages of field labor is eight dollars per nionth or one 
hundred dollars per year. In all cases the laborer is furnished with shelter, 
rations and firewood, and almost invariably with a garden and the privilege of 
raising poultry and some stock. Work commences at sunrise and is over at 
sunset. The time allowed for meals varies. For dinner it is from one to three 
hours, according to the length of the days. A large proportion of the land is 
worked on shares. When the landlord furnishes the tools, stock and stock feed, 
he takes one-half the crop in Laurens, Chester, Abbeville and York, and in por- 
tions of Fairfield and Spartanburg. In Greenville and portions of the counties 
last named, the laborer takes one-third and the landlord two-thirds, under the 
above conditions. In Greenville also the laborer takes two- thirds if he furnishes 
tools, stock, and feed for it. The portion paid for land alone varies from one- 
fourth to one-third of the crop — the former being the most general one. 

Statements regarding the average market value of land vary with every 
locality. They are for Greenville and Laurens, six dollars to ten dollars an acre; 



154 SOUTH CAROLINA 

for York, six dollars; for Abbeville and Sparttiuburg, ten dollars; for Newberry, 
six dollars to tAventy-five dollars; for Fairfield, tliree dollars to fifteen dollars; 
for Chester, seven dollars to eighteen dollars. Land rents at from the value of 
two dollars and a-half to three and a-lialf per acre. Correspondents in some 
instances rejiort no lands for sale in this Piedmont Region. 

The writer deems it, in much of its area, a fine grass country. In a tour 
through much of it two years ago, the Kentucky blue-grass "was a striking earnest 
of the possibilities of the country in stock-raising and dairj'ing, if the people will 
but appreciate it. It was seen growing spontaneously in many places along the 
line of th€ Charlotte, Columbia and Augusta Railroad and the branches controlled 
by it traversing the Piedmont Region. 

THE ALPINE REGION. 

The Alpine Region of South Carolina occupies the extreme northwestern 
border of the State. Commencing at King's Mountain, in York County, it extends 
westward through Spartanburg, Greenville, Pickens and Oconee Counties, widen- 
ing in the three last named, until it embraces a tier of the most northern townships 
two or tliree deep. This wedge-shaped area has a length of 114 miles, and a w"idth 
varying from eight to twenty-one miles. 

The physical features of this region present a rolling table-land, broken and 
hilly on the margin of the streams, but scarcely anywhere inaccessible to the 
plow. It has a general elevation above the sea level of 1,000 to 1,533 feet. The 
gently undulating surface extends to the mountains, whose rock-bound walls 
often rise suddenly to their greatest height. The southeastern face of King's 
Mountain rises perpendicularly 500 feet above the plain, and its northwestern 
slope descends gently towards the Blue Ridge Mountains. Table Rock also rises 
800 feet vertically, or a little overhanging above the southeastern terrace at its 
base, formed of the loose fragments that in the course of ages have fallen from 
above. The steep ascent of these mountains from their South Carolina or south- 
eastern face, and their gradual slope on their northeastern face, and their gradual 
slope to the northwest, where the mountains of North Carolina rise a])parently 
from a level country, is the reverse of the prevailing rule on the Atlantic slope, 
which is, that the short steep sides face northwest, and the long gentle slopes face 
southeast. The bracing and healthful climate of this region, its beautiful scenery, 
the bold mountain outlines, the rich luxuriance of every growth; no stunted 
plant on mountain side or summit ; every part, even the crevasses of the rocks, 
covered with trees and shrubs of some kind, all full of life and vigor ; the clear 
swift streams that everywhere leap in a succession of cascades from crag and clifi", 
and sparkle in their course along the narrow but fertile valleys, have made it for 
generations a health and pleasure resort during sununer. 

The elevation above the mean level of the sea of the following points in 
Western South Carolina were determined by the United States Coast Geodetic 
Survey: King's IMountain, 1,093 feet; Paris Mountain, (near Greenville,) 2,054 
feet; Caesar's Head, 3,118 feet; Mt. Pinnacle, (near Pickens,) the highest point in 
South Carohna, 3,403 feet. 

THE SOILS. 

The soils are similar to those found elsewhere in the State which are produced 
by the decomposition of gneiss rock in situ. On the more level uplands a gray, 
sandy loam, with a red, and sometimes, on the mica slates, with a yellowish 
white, clay, predominates. On the hillsides a stiff red-clay soil prevails. In the 
bottoms a still darker loam, more thoroughly saturated with lime and potash from 
the decomposed hornblende and mica slates, is found. Those bottom lands have 
long been highly esteemed as yielding abundant crops of corn, the small grains 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 155 

and the grasses. Little thought or attention was bestowed on tlie uplands 
previous to the attempt, so successfully made within the last few years, to intro- 
duce upon them the culture of cotton. 

CLIMATE. 

According to the physical charts of the Ninth United States Census and the 
rain charts of the Smithsonian Institute, (2d Ed., 1877,) this region has a mean 
annual temperature corresponding with tliat of Kansas or New Jersey. The more 
mountainous portions have, however, a mean annual temperature that corresponds 
with that of Montana or the lower region of the great lakes. The annual fall of 
water is over 60 inches. For spring it is over 18 inches, and for autumn it is 12 
inches ; in winter it is 16 inches. Dewless nights rarely occur. 

GROWTH. 

The prevailing growth is oak, chestnut and short-leaf pine. Hemlock or 
spruce pine {abies canadensis) is found in the mountains. 

The Alpine Region of South Carolina embraces an area of 1,250 square 
miles. The population numbers 34,496 — an increase since the census of 1870 of 
66 per cent. 26 per cent, of the population is colored. 80 per cent, of the land is 
woodland and forest, 16 per cent, is tilled, and four per cent, is in old fields. The 
"area of tilled land has more than doubled since 1870, being now 132,791 acres. 
The number of farms is 4,646. 43 per cent, are under 50 acres. Of the tilled 
land, 88,766 acres, or 65 per cent., is in grain of all kinds. The average yield of 
grain is only a little over eight bushels to the acre, and does not express the capa- 
bility of this section for the production of this article. Fields of corn on bottom 
lands averaging 40 to 60 bushels an acre are not uncommon, and the minimum of 
calculation of the crop for uplands, without manure, is 10 to 12 bushels per acre, 
while 20 to 30 are obtained by good culture. Rice has grown here, without any 
manure, over 100 bushels to the acre, though very little of it is planted. The 
yield of grain per capita is 20 bushels, and is greater than elsewhere in the State, 
except in the Sand Hill Region. The average yield of lint per acre planted in 
cotton is 141 pounds. The land-holdings average from 150 to 300 acres, including 
woodlands. Most of the land is rented or worked on shares. The cash rental 
varies from two dollars and fifty cents to four dollars an acre. The usual terms 
are one-fourth the cotton and one-third of the grain. Where stock and imple- 
ments are furnished by the landlord, he gets one-half the crop. The average 
market value of lands is stated at five dollars an acre; improved lands sell at from 
six dollars to ten dollars an acre. About one-half the field laborers are negroes. 
Wages are fifty cents a day; six to eight dollars a month with board; seventy-five 
dollars a year with board. One-horse plows are generally used. 

AVATER-POWERS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 

South Carolina is remarkably blessed with this great source of prosperity to 
many countries. We cannot think of showing how much there is and where 
distributed ; we touch only the leading points. Among many advantages enumer- 
ated as to the water-powers, it is stated : *' That the rocky beds of these streams 
afford everywhere good sites and permanent foundations for mill-dams, wliile the 
high angle at which they cross the ledges of rock increases the perpendicularity 
of the fall, and presents a clean, smooth edge, adding to the facility with which 
the water is made available." Another great consideration is given : " The meta- 
morphic rocks laid bare on the banks of the streams furnish material for dams 
and buildings of the best quality. Besides soapstone, gneiss, talc and mica slates, 
there are few locahties where a fine-grained and easily -splitting granite is not to 



156 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 



be liad." The following is cousidered a low estimate, and does not enibrnce all 
the territory : 

Summary of Powers on Rivers in South Carolina, Examined ry G. F. 
Swain, S. B., Special Agent Tenth U. S. Census. 



STREAM AND LOCALITY. 





Fall. 










■" . 




s« 












<s 






9 9 












c 5 




%> 


<^-x. 




c 








a 


" 


•4 



Flow 

Pkr 

Second. 



HORSE-PoWKR 

Available. 



2i 



-3 



^g 



V. 5 



Wateree River, Wateree Canal 

Tributaries : Big- Pine Tree Creek 

Little " 

Catawba River, Great Falls , 

Catawba River, Landsford 

Tributaries of Catawba River : Rocky Creek 

Fishing Creek 

Sugar Creek 

Cong:aree River at Columbia 

Tributaries of Congaree River : Congaree Creek 

Red Bank Creek. . 
Broad River, Bull Sluice 

Ninety-Nine Island Shoal , 

Boney Shoal 

Summer Shoal 

Lyle's Shoal , 

Neal's Shoal 

Lockhart's Shoal 

Ninety-Nine Island Shoal 

Cherokee Shoals 

Surratt Shoal 

Ga.'iton Shoal 

Enoree River, Yarboro Mill 

Mountain Shoal 

Leatherwood Shoal 

Van Patton Shoal 

Pelham Manufacturing Company. . . 

Beuna Vista Factory 

Teague's Fall 

Tyger River, Hill's Factory 

Nesbltt's 

Ott's Mill 

Cleveland's 

Dean's Mill 

Ballinger's 

Penny Shoal 

Crawfordsville 

Murphy's, Fair Forest Creek 

Paoolet River, Trough Shoals 

Hurricane Shoals 

Glendale 

Saluda River, Saluda Factory 

Mouth of Saluda 

Dreher's Canal 

Great Falls 

MattoxMill 

Erwin's Mill 

Pelzer Manufacturing Company 

Piedmont Manufacturing Company. 



Reedy River. 



Tumbling Shoals 

Fork Shoal 

Reedy River Jfanufacturing Company. 

Camperdown Mills 

Cox & Markley's Factory 

Savannah River, P.lue Jacket Shoal 

Trotter's Shoal 

Cherokee Shoal 

Gregg's Shoal 

Middlcton's Shoal 

McDaniel's Shoa' 

Tributaries Savannah I'iver : Little River 

Long Cane 

Tugaloo River, Hatton's Shoal 

Cuest's Shoal 

Seneca River, Portrian's Shoal 

Tv.'clve Mile (^reek 

Little River 



4,376 
65 
12 

3,600 

3,426 
185 
223 
880 

7,300 
115 



4,760 

4,525 

4,480 

3,490 

2,.590 

2,400 

1,387 

l,a57 

1,142 

1,132 

375 

280 

234 

2.% 

94 

94 

94 

308 

274 

112 



i<'eet. 
52 
40 
18 
173 
40 



5 m 



22&34 
"12 



60 



50 



180 

380 

82 

82 

2,350 

2,350 

2,300 

635 

600 

523 

400 

380 



87 



5,800 

2,664 

2,212 

2,100 

2,078 

1,900 

531 

183 

845 

775 

740 

148 

140 



17.2 

6.0 

11.61 

11.36 

9.75 

47.6 
60 

50.2 
35 
10 
16 
70 
12 
55 
30 
18 
23 
40 
9 
86 
20 
11 
14 
36 
171 
27 
66 
15 
36 
16 
34 
20 
55 
6 
10 
21 
20 



2 3-4m 



0.94 m. 
i,O.W ft. 
3,300 ft. 
1.41 m. 
3.20 m. 

2 m. 
1.75 jn. 

lin. 



80 ft. 
3-4 m. 



300 yds. 



1-4 m. 
300 yds. 



3 1-2 m. 

1 m. 

1 1-4 m. 



75 ft. 



963 


3,500 


28 


,55 


6 


12 


793 


2,900 


7.50 


3,000 


18 


160 


25 


200 


50 


330 


1,680 


0,200 



62 



500 yds. 



600 ft. 

7 m. 
1-2 m. 

Im. 



670 



5 m. 



1 1-2 m 

1 m. 

2 m. 



79 
22 
£0 

'189 



5,700 
3.2 


15 mo 

3,400 

2 

2.8 

5.6 

4,200 
6.6 



400 
300 
250 
2i50 
100 
100 
100 
330 



200 
420 



2,10c 



2,150 

700 

1,.3.50 

1,0.30 

650 

2,000 

1,SC0 

1,800 

1,000 

280 

112 

330 

48 

250 

33 

20 

25 

204 

70 

72 



35 
81 
420 



70 

1,OJO 

2.100 

1,150 

800 

60 

120 



7,750 20,700 

4.1 

3.2| ... . 
21,000 57,000 
4,650 13,000 



3 

4.6 

6.8 

5,.50O 



40 



2,800 
925 

1,775 

i,a50 

8.50 
3,900 

2,:r>o 

2,:i.50 

1,2.50 

360 

144 

450 

60 

290 

42 

25 

32 

272 

180 

90 



108 
600 



425; 

4001 



160 

7 

34 
40 

25 



140 
1,275 

2,700 

1..500 

1,000 

75 

150 



2,550 



4.50 
1.58 
925 

'82."} 



15 135 
20 168 



1,0.5() 

5,700 

560 

825 

1,0C0 

1,600 

9 

2.5 

936 

375 

1,200 

102 

2.3 



240 
9.4 
45 

"32 



18.2 
22.8 
37.5 
15,.500 
i:i2 



7,9.50 

2,600 

6,000 

3,800 

2,.5.50 

11.000 

0,'!()() 

6,900 

4,000 

1,1.50 

725 

2,400 

340 

1,.5.50 

340 

200 

260 

1,.500 

274 

288 



8,8.50 

6.3 

4.9 

24,000 

6,270 
3.4 
5.6 
8.0 

6,400 



140 



613 

2,860 



210 

3,800 
8,100 
4,400 
4,000 
300 
600 



970 

45.4 

70 

"260 
710 



2,050 
8,100 

800 

1,1.50 

1..500 

2,275 

12 

3.3 
1,131 

450 
1,700 

144 

3.4 



5,800 

01,7.50 

2,100 

3,2(H) 

4,000 

6,100 

61 

18 

4,095 

1,0.50 

6,020 

924 

19.11 



3,250 

1,075 

2,000 

1.600 

1,000 

4, .500 

2,700 

2,700 

1,4.50 

400 

176 

600 

72 

330 

61 

31 

39 

200 

205 

60 

25 

32 

42 

40 

l.%5 

700 

90 

200 

1,500 

3,200 

1,750 

1,200 

90 

175 



284 

n.i 

53 

""89 



12 

8,a50 
9,165 

900 

1,325 

1,700 

2.600 

14 

3.0 
1,287 

520 
1,9.50 

166 

A.0 



In the foregoing statement the available water-power examined is estimated 
at something over 300,000 horse-power. Only about four per cent, is utilized. 
Without further allowance for the low estimates, or for the improvement that art 
might effect by dams and canals, there can be no question that, from the lower 
line of hill country northward in South Carolina, there is more than a million of 
horse-power in w^ater-powers, varying in size from 30 to 30,000 horse-power, easily 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 157 

and cheaply available, under conditions peculiarly advantageous, not counting 
the presence of the large amount of raw material in the shape of cotton to be 
manufactured. 

For general information, the following table of cost of water-powers at 
various points is also given: 

Annual Rent or Estimated Cost of One Horse-Power. 

WATER-POWEK. STEAM-POWER. 

Lawrence, Mass $14 12 $64 00 to $74 00 

Dayton, Ohio 3800 3360 

Cohoes, New York 20 00 

Turner's Falls, Mass 10 00 

Augusta, Georgia 5 50 

It is estimated that if the State rents the water it is now developing at Col- 
umbia at five dollars per annum for one horse-power, that it will obtain a hand- 
some revenue from the labor and material expended. 

At seven per cent, on the cost of dams and canals for the w^ater-power util- 
ized and available in South Carolina, the following is a statement of the cost of a 
horse-power per annum at several factories in this State. 

Langley $2 10 

Graniteville 5 81 

Vaucluse 7 0° 

No I , Camperdown » 043 

Glendale o 39 

Saluda Factory o 28 

Average for the whole, one dollar and seventy cents per annum per horse- 
power. 

MANUFACTURES. 

South Carolina, like the other Southern States, has shown rapid progress in 

manufactures, although probably surpassed in that line by one or two of the 

others. The growth of the material interests of that State of late years is very 

forcibly shown by some statistics compiled from the Charleston New^s and Courier. 

In manufactures, cotton has taken the lead. The product of the cotton mills of 

South Carolina was as follows : 

In i860 $ 713.050 

" 1870 1,274,944 

" 1880 2,895,769 

" 1883-84 7,963,198 

The percentage of increase was as follows : 

1860-70 78 per cent. 

1870-80 127 " 

1880-84 175 " 

In a little more than three years, ending January, 1884, the increase in pro- 
duction was a third more than in the ten years ending in 1880, and the whole 
product in 1883 was ten times as great as the product in 1860. This is not the 
whole truth. The actual capacity of the cotton mills in South Carolina as they 
stand to-day is at least $9,000,000. The number of looms and spindles was as 
follows : 

LOOMS. SPINDLES. 

i860 525 3o>89o 

1870 745 34,940 

1880 1,676 82,334 

1883-84 3,652 195. "2 

Mr. C. H. Parker, Secretary National Cotton Exchange, gives the very latest 
figures for this State, as follows: Mills, 30; looms, 3,685; spindles, 210,304. 

The production of lumber and naval stores has increased with exhilarating 
rapidity. In 1880 and in 1883, respectively, the value of the products was : 

1880. 1883. 

Lumber $2,031,507 $5,592,565 

Naval Stores 2,857,981 2,912,271 

Totals $4,889,488 $8,504,836 



158 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 



The increase in the value of the product in three years is 74 per cent. In value* 
the lumber and naval stores business exceeds by half a million dollars, the value 
of the products of the cotton mills last year. The lumber and naval stores of last 
year equaled in value 212,620 bales of cotton, at $40 to the bale. 

Taking the classification of manufactures, which is followed in the United 
States census, and reducing the value of the products in 1870 to a gold basis, we 
obtain the following results, being the whole value of all manufactured products in 
South Carolina : 

i860 ' $8,615,195 

1870 8,215,198 

1880 16,738,008 

1883 32,324,404 

The progress of the State in agriculture has been satisfactory, as is proved by 
the following statement of the production of cotton, corn and small grain : 

i860. 

Cotton, bales 353. 412 

Corn, bushels 15,635,606 

Oats, " : 906,024 

Wheat, " 1,285,631 

The year 1883 was most unfavorable ; the crop of cotton, as compared with 
1882, being reduced 32 per cent, by drought, rust and worms, while corn was 
reduced 43 per cent., oats 8 per cent., and wheat 2 per cent. In spite of this, the 
cotton crop in 1883 was 114,815 bales more than in 1860. This year the estimated 
crop, as compared with 1860, will be as follows: 

i860. 1884. 

Cotton, half s 353. 412 700,000 

Corn, bushels 15,635,606 19,210,000 

Oats, " 906,924 7.437,213 

Wheat, " 1,285,631 1,803,924 

This is a fair estimate of what may be expected, if the season be favorable, and 
if the estimate be reduced considerably there is still an enormous improvement, m 
the agricultural situation, as compared with 1860. The increase in oats, a distinct- 
ively white man's crop, is worthy of special notice. Moreover, the advance in 
agriculture is due to the labors of the white people of the State. 

The following recapitulation shows the progress made during the last three 
decades, and to 1883 : 



1870. 


1883. 


224,500 
7,614,207 

613,593 

782,610 


468,227 

10,876,744 

4,187,082 

1,383.731 



i860. 

Agriculture $45,823,512 

Manufactures 8,615,195 

Mines and quarries 17,000 



1870. 

Agriculture $34,924,585 

Manufactures 8,215,918 

Mines and quarries 16,573 



$54,455,707 



5,157,076 



Agriculture $41 ,969,749 

Manufactures 16,738,008 

Mines and quarries i ,180,805 

$59,888,562 



Agriculture $41,790,321 

Manufactures 32,324,404 

Mines and quarries 2,440,000 



.554.725 



LOCATIONS OF MINERALS, ROCKS, &c. 

Antimony — Traces in Abbeville County. 

Asbestos occurs in Spartanburg County, where there is a mine ; in Oconee 
County; also in the counties of Laurens, York, Anderson and Pickens. 

Barytes, in great quantities, occurs near the Air Line Railroad in York. A 
mine is being worked in this county with small capital. 

Beryl is found in King's Mountain Township, Anderson County, in Edgefield 
and Laurens Counties. 

Bismuth, in quantity, is found at one of the gold mines in Chesterfield. 

Buhr-stone is found in Kershaw County, north of Orangeburg. 

Clay, for bricks, in numberless places. 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 159 

Copper is found in Anderson County Before the war— none since— work was 
being vigorously pushed in mines in York County. It is found, but only slightly 
developed, in Edgefield County; found, but not mined, in Laurens County; traces 
observed by Lieber on Tyger River in Spartanburg County, in Oconee County, 
and in some mill-races in Southern Pickens and Greenville ; indications, but no 
mining, in Oconee County. Copper is found everywhere in the gold veins of the 
Carolina group. As it increases regularly with the depth to wliich the veins have 
been worked, experts have been satisfied that it will be found in remunerative 
quantities. 

Corundum is found in Abbeville County and other places— in Anderson, Oco- 
nee and Laurens. In this last county there is an extensive field of corundum. 

Feldspar of excellent quality in extensive veins occurs in Pickens, in Abbe- 
ville, and also in Anderson and Laurens. 

Flagging Stones are found in Edgefield, Abbeville, Chester, Lexington, Fair- 
field Counties, and the Pee Dee Country. There is a remarkable locality of 
superior flagging stones eight miles south of Pickens Court House, on tlie Green- 
ville road. 

Gneiss is found with granite generally, and it is very often in a state of 
decomposition. 

Gold.—^outh Carolina was quite a gold State years ago. The West over- 
shadowed her. Many mines were opened and profitably worked. The war closed 
most, if not all of them. Until recently, little has been done in the way of 
renewed work. Of late, however, considerable activity has been manifested. 

Next in the order of superposition above the mica slates occur extensive 
areas of talc slate. These rocks seem to have yielded more completely to the 
erosive action of the rivers even than the mica slates. They scarcely appear at 
all in the angle enclosed between the Catawba and the Saluda. Their largest out- 
crops are east of the Catawba, in Lancaster and Chesterfield; and separated from 
these by the whole width of the river system of the State— 80 miles— to the south- 
west, they occur on the further side of the Saluda, in Edgefield and Abbeville. 
These two localities are the great gold-bearing regions of the State. 

Granite is in strong force in parts of the State, and much of it of fine char- 
acter. In Anderson and Chester good building granite is found ; also in Green- 
ville and Spartanburg. In Oconee, near Walhalla, inexhaustible quarry of very 
fine building granite. Pickens has a quarry, said to be of best quality. In Abbe- 
ville a very fine granite hammondite occurs. 

Grapliite is found in considerable quantities in Willianston Township and 
elsewhere in Anderson ; also in Spartanburg, Greenville and Laurens, on Paris 
Mountain and in Oconee County. 

Ttacolumite is found on Broad River, near the northern boundary of the State. 
where Union, York and Spartanburg corner. Thus far only one diamond has 
been found in South Carolina, though several have been obtained from the con- 
tinuation of these rocks, both in Georgia and in North Carolina. Itacolumite is 
found on the Chatuga supporting several bodies of limestone rock. 

/?wi.— Iron in magnetic and specular ores is found in incxliaustible quantities 
on the western slope of King's Mountain, in York, Spartanburg and Union ; also 
in Chester and Abbeville. Brown hematite occurs in the mica slates of Pickens 
and Spartanburg. Bog iron ore occurs in nearly every county of the State. 

Kaolin.— l^'AYge beds of kaolin clay, free from grit or other impurity, and of 
great whiteness, are found intercalated among these sands. Several quarries to 
the west of Aiken, C. H., have been worked with much profit, the material being 
used as porcelain clay, and also by paper manufacturers. 



160 SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Lead. — Argentiferous galena is found in Spartanburg and Laurens, and more 
recently in Edgefield and Abbeville. In Oconee county, on the headwaters of 
Little River, Lieber examined a very promising vein of argentiferous galena, 
which he thought might be profitably developed. 

Limestone. — Tliis rock is scattered over a considerable area of the State, and 
doubtless future exploitation will greatly more disclose it. It is found in the 
lower pine belt, disclosing itself in what is called "lime sinks." In Laurens 
county a lime rock crops out on Reedy River, and below Garlington Falls on 
Reedy River it is quarried for monuments and for lime burning. On the 
Chatuga River limestone is foun(J, and there are a number of lime-kilns in opera- 
tion there. Limestone is also found in Oconee County, where there is also a 
quarry. 

Manganese, in great purity and abundance, is found in Edgefield, and also in 
Abbeville, York, Laurens and Anderson. 

Marl is found over a large area of the State. So far as can be learned, it seems 
to lack appreciation, and to be little utilized, yet it ought to be a most potent fac- 
tor in the resuscitation or enrichment of tlie soils of the State wiiere it occurs. It 
is found as the underlying stratum in much of the Sea Island soils. 

Mica of excellent quality has been mined in Anderson County and in Abbe- 
ville County. Large sheets of transparent mica have been found near Walhalla. 
It is also found in Pickens County. 

Phosjihate — This is a deposit only utilized Of late years since 1861, and has 
been a great source of enterprise and piofit. Lands worth only five or six dol- 
hirs an acre containing the deposit went up at once to five or six hundred per 
acre. The business has grown from 20.000 tons mined in 1868-70 to 355,000 in 
1883. In land and river mining companies there are 25. The total capital is 
$2,505,000, number of hands 1,935. But this is only part of it. Besides the mining 
companies, a large capital is invested in manufacturing fertilizers in the State, of 
which fertilizers the phosphate is a large constituent, In the State there are 
nearly $3,000,000 invested in the latter business. 

The extent of the deposits is conjectural, but quite extended. Professor 
Hammond estimates that one mining company, in river territory alone, has 
enough phosphate, upon a moderate computation, to yield ten millions of tons. 

This phosphate has from 50 to 60 per cent, phosphate of lime. A large busi- 
ness is done in shipping the rock to foreign ports. 

Sandstone is found in the Sand Hill Region. Professor Hammond thus 
speaks of it : "Next to the granite is found a stratum of sand stone, consisting of 
the ruins of the granite consolidated into a pretty hard rock. It occurs on Horse 
Creek, on the ridges at the head of Light wood Creek, on Congaree Creek, at the 
Rock House in Lexington County, where it has been quarried for architectural 
purposes, and on Second Creek, in the same neighborhood." 

Silver has been found in Anderson County, in argentiferous galena in Spar- 
tanburg and Laurtns, and more recently in Edgefield and Abbeville. There are 
said to be indications of silver in Oconee County. Across the Savannah River 
from Edgefield and Abbeville Counties, the mining of argentiferous galena for 
silver, as well as for lead and the zinc-blende associated with it, is attracting much 
attention at this time. 

Soapstone. — In Kershaw County masses of steatite occur on Spear's, Twenty- 
five Mile and Pine Tree Creeks. Steatite or soapstone is found in Chester, Spar- 
tanburg, Union, Pickens, Oconee, Anderson, Abbeville, Kershaw, Fairfield and 
Richland. In Anderson there is a knob of soapstone. In Edgefield County a 
good soapstone is found. In Grey Township, same county, there are three quar- 
ries of soapstone, but not much developed. There is soapstone in Fairfield 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 161 

County A red soapstone is found in Greenville County. Soapstone of fine 
quality occurs in Laurens County. 

Tourmaline is found in York, Edgefield, Laurens, Anderson and Oconee 
Counties. 

WheUtones are found in Edgefield, Abbeville, Chester, Lexington, Faii-field 
and the Pee Dee country. 

Zircons are found in Abbeville and in Anderson Counties. 

HEALTH. 
The percentage of deaths in the population of the United States and South 
Carolina, and in the population of the Upper, Middle and Lower Country of the 
latter, is as follows, according to statistics compiled by Mr. Harry Hammond : 

TOTAL. MALE. FEMALE. 

United States 1.5, , ,8 

South Carolina.... ,.5 , , ^^ 

Upper Alpine Region i oq _ /;^ 

Middle Country, or Piedmont, Sand and I 

Red Hill, and Upper Pine Belt Regions. J ^-33 

Lower Countr\% or Lower I 

Pine Belt and Coast Regions/ 2°^ 

It is estimated the number of deaths not reported do not exceed thirty per 
cent, of those reported. The average mortality for the whole country is given, 
when thus corrected, at 18.2 per thousand, as against 20.5 per thousand in England, 
and 21.5 per thousand in Scotland. The slightly higher death-rate above given 
for South Carolina, may be due to a more accurate enumeration, or it may be 
accounted for by the preponderance of the colored race, whose death-rate is always 
higher than that of the whites. 

LAWS. 

T«.ra^2bw.— Public institutions generally and all churches and burning grounds 
are exempt from taxation. A new assessment of property must be made every 
five years. The State may contract public debts for the purpose of defraying ex- 
traordinary expenditures, but it must do so by special act, specifying some single 
object, and levying a special tax to pay the annual interest on such debt; and 
such act must be passed by the vote of two-thirds of the members of each branch 
of the General Assembly. 

Law of Property.— Awj man or woman of legal age, owning real estate in fee 
simple may freely dispose of it by will, or sell and convey the same by deed, exe- 
cuted in the presence of two or more witnesses, and duly recorded. If the deed be 
by a married man, the wife must renounce her dower in a formal manner provided 
by statute. A married woman may hold property separately from her husband, 
and may dispose of the same as if she were unmarried. 

A homestead in lands, whether held in fee or any lesser estate, not to exceed in 
value one thousand dollars, with the yearly products thereof, is exempt to the 
head of every family residing in South Carolina from levy or sale for debt upon 
any judgment recovered against him. If the husband be dead, the widow is enti- 
tled to the homestead. And if both parents be dead, the children are. Personal 
property to the value of five hundred dollars is exempt from attachment, levy or 
sale. Where a woman has separate property, she is entitled to the homestead 
when the husband's property is not sufficient. The legal rate of interest is seven 
per cent., but by written contract a rate of interest not exceeding ten per cent, 
may be charged. If more than ten per cent, be charged, all the interest is 
forfeited. 

The real and personal property of a woman held at the time of her marriage, 
or that which she may thereafter acquire, either by gift, grant, inheritance, devise, 
or otherwise, does not pass to her husband by her marriage, nor become in any 



162 SOUTH CAROLINA. 

way su.bject to bis debts, but remains ber separate property, and sbe can deal witb 
it as sbe cbooses during ber life and dispose of it by will, as if sbe were unmarried. 

Every encouragement is given to tbe employment of capital in manufacturing 
industries. By a special Act of tbe Assembly, it is provided tbat capital invested in 
tbe manufacture of cotton, woolen and paper fabrics, iron, lime and agricultural 
implements, sball be exempted from all State, county and municipal taxation for a 
period of ten years from tbe time of tbe commencement of tbe enterprise, except- 
ing only tbe two mill tax for scbool purposes. But tbis exemption does not apply 
to tbe land upon wbicb factories are erected. Vessels of one bundred tons meas- 
urement, and upwards, built and owned witbin tbis State, are entitled to tbe 
benefit of tbis act. Tbose desiring to avail tbemselves of tbe act must file witb 
tbe Comptroller-General proof of tbe investment. For tbe purpose of encourag- 
ing immigration, real estate purcbased by immigrants, and capital invested in 
improvements tbereon, up to $1,500, are exempted for five years from all State, 
county or municipal taxation, except tbe two mill scbool tax. 

In order to give tbe latest I could about the State, I addressed a letter to tbe 
Hon. A. P. Butler, to wbom I am indebted for tbe courtesy of tbe following 
reply : 

STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA— Department of Agriculture. 

A. P. Butler, Commissioner. Columbia, S. C, September lo, 1884. 

Mr. M. B. Hillyard, New Orleans, La. : 

Dear Sir — Your favor of the 4th has been received. The best specimen of walnut that we e.Khib- 
ited at the Atlanta Exposition was from the eastern section of the State, from the Pee Dee swamps, 
and those swamps abound with fine timbers. 

Walnut, hickory and oaks are found in abundance in the northern, or Alpine Section of the State, 
embracing the counties of Greenville, Pickens and Oconee. 

Outside of manufacturing enterprises, I think that real estate, especially in the cities and towns, 
and stock raising, offer the greatest inducements to investors. 

Real estate has rapidly appreciated in value in the past few years, and will continue to improve 
even faster when larger amounts have been invested in manufacturing. 

Within the last few years several stock farms (improved breeds of cattle chiefly) have been estab- 
lished and proven very profitable. The immense fresh water swamps of our larger rivers furnish abun- 
dant pasturage of the best quality, and a gentleman who has recently begun breeding common stock 
for market is very much encouraged by the prospects of success. These offer special inducements to 
capitalists. 

There are many other channels for the investment of money in South Carolina, which I have no 
doubt you have fully covered by your article. 

I am glad to know that you have this matter in hand, and feel sure that, in common with other 
Southern States, we will receive much benefit from your labors. 

Very truly 3'ours, 

A. P. BUTLER, Commissioner of Agriculture. 



GEORGIA. 



As the reliabilit}'' of the United States Census Reports is unquestioned, I have 
drawn on volume vi, of the last census, for considerable information relating to the 
topography and climate of Georgia. 

The State of Georgia lies between longitude 3° 47' 2V^ and 8° 42' west from 
Washington, and between latitude 30° 2V 39'' and 35° north, embracing in its area 
59,475 square miles, of which 495 square miles is water surface, embracing 150 
square miles of coast waters (bays, gulfs, sounds, etc.). 300 square miles consist of 
rivers and smaller streams, and 45 square miles of lakes and ponds. The land area 
is therefore 58,980 square miles. There are 137 counties in the State. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The northwestern corner of the State is crossed from Tennessee to Alabama by 
several ranges of mountains that rise in altitude from 500 to 1000 feet above the 
intervening broad and rich valleys. Sand and Lookout mountains are broad- 
backed, while the other ranges are mostly narrow or " backbone" ridges. In the 
northeastern portion of the State is the Blue Ridge chain, with other isolated points 
rising high above the surrounding country. The Chattahoochee ridge, an offshoot 
from this and forming the Atlantic and Gulf water-divide, passes south of the 
Chattahoochee river, soon losing its prominence as a ridge and falling in elevation 
to Atlanta. Southward the country is more generally level or rolling, sometimes 
hilly, with but few low mountains until the pinelands are reached ; thence to the 
coast the fall is very gradual and the lands are very level. 

CLIMATE. 

The State, with its southern boundary resting against Florida and in part 
washed by the Atlantic ocean on the southeast, its northern boundary 320 miles to 
the north among the mountains of the Blue Ridge and the Cumberland range, and 
nearly 5,000 leet above sea level, presents an average temperature of 6S° F. on the 
coast, 52° to 56° in Middle Georgia, and 52° in the Blue Ridge region, or an 
annual average of about 65° for the entire State. 

The average rainfall for the State is from 46 to 50 inches, the steady rains being 
usually brought by southeastern winds. 

The coast region, with its sea-breezes and "salty atmosphere," has a mean winter 
temperature of about 48°, the lowest being rarely below 32°. Its summer maximum 
is 90° and the mean 79°. Its rainfall is about 57 inches, December and January 
being the driest months. 

So genial is the climate of the coast counties that oranges, bananas, and other 
semi-tropical fruits are produced in abundance. The markets of colder States are 
supplied with very early vegetables and garden luxuries from the farms of this region. 

In Middle Georgia the rainfall is less (41 inches), the driest months being June 
and September. The yearly temperature ranges from 6° to 96°, with an average of 



164 GEORGIA. 

44° in winter and 73° in summer. During the hottest summer-days the temperature 
often rises to 100°, but the nights are cool, pleasant and invigorating. 

In Northeastern Georgia the extremes of temperature are 6° and 90°, with an 
average of 43° for the winter months and 75° for the summer. The rainfall for this 
section is about 57 inches, heavy rains occurring in the fall and winter months. 
The amount of rain that annually falls in each section and in the wet and dry 
months varies greatly. 

Snow falls in Northern Georgia every winter, but only to depths of from 2 to 4 
inches and remains but a short time. In Middle Georgia it frequently falls, but 
melts almost as rapidly as it touches the ground. Occasionally, on ridges, it reaches 
a depth of an inch or two. In Southern Georgia snow is rarely seen. High winds, 
mostly accompanied by thunder-storms, prevail chiefly in the spring and early 
summer, and come from the southwest, occasionally becoming tornadoes. 

Planting in the low or southern country begins as early as March 15, and fall 
frosts do not appear earlier than December 1, and it often happens that there is no 
frost during the winter. 

In Northern Georgia planting is not done until about the last of April, because 
of continued cold and frosty weather. 

GENERAL VIEW OF THE STATE. 

The islands cover a width of 10 or 12 miles, with sand-hills seaward and 
marshes and live-oak lands inland. On the mainland the marshes with live-oak 
lands extend back for a few miles to the open savanna belt, which occupies the first 
terrace above the coast marshes and is a level plain covered with palmetto and long- 
leaf pine, and interspersed with bay and gum swamps. Uniformity in character 
exists for 10 or 15 miles to the foot of the second terrace. This rises from 15 to 25 
feet, and with it the wire-grass region begins. Its surface, at first undulating, has 
an open growth of long-leaf pine, with little or no undergrowth except wire-grass. 
These pine barrens extend northwestward about 100 miles and gradually rise to the 
altitude of 365 feet. As we pass northward over this region the loamy soils become 
perhaps more sandy, though still firm, and the country becomes somewhat more 
rolling, the monotony being varied only by cypress ponds, gallberry flats, and 
occasionally by a stream with its annually overflowed bottom. 

The central cotton belt, or yellow loam region, is to the northward. Long-leaf 
pine is at first most prominent, but gradually thins out to the north, being replaced 
by the short-leaf variety. The surface of the country, level at first, becomes more 
and more rolling, and buhrstone hes in fragments on the ground, limestone crops out 
in the streams, and wire -grass disappears entirely. Oak and hickory are prominent. 
The soil, sandy at first, with yellow clay subsoil, becomes more clayey north- 
ward ; the country also rises to an elevation of 500 feet, and in some places to 600 
feet to the summits of the red-clay hills (150 miles from the coast), a rise of over 150 
feet in 30 miles. Still northward from this yellow loam and oak upland belt the 
sand and pine hills, with their pine and blackjack, are crossed. At first the land is 
lower than that of the red hills, but rises to a Ime of hills from 500 to 600 feet above 
the sea. Red clay lands isolated, and similar to those on the south, are found on the 
northern edge of the belt, which here is only 12 to 15 miles wide. The three 
divisions form parallel belts and extend from the Savannah to the Chattahoochee 
rivers diagonally across the State. 

With the northern edge of the belt last described the metamorphic or mineral 
division of the State begins, and presents a rolling, broken, and often hilly surface. 
Soils varying from gray sandy to red clayey, gravelly and rocky occur in belts of 
every width, and rocks peculiar to the section, hornblendic and gray gneiss, outcrop 
in place or are found in fragments on the surface. 



GEORGIA. 165 

The growth is of great variety, the chief trees being oak, hickory, chestnut, poplar 
and pine. The elevation gradually increases toward the broad central granite 
region and beyond to Atlanta, where the altitude is 1,050 feet above the sea, and on 
Stone Mountain 1,686 feet. Thence the country falls to 760 feet at the Chattahoo- 
chee river ; but from there the altitude increases until it reaches a maximum of 
2,347 feet on Pine Log mountain, on the eastern side of Bartow county and at the 
northwestern border of the metamorphic region, in all about 120 miles from the 
sand hills. On the northeast the rise from the Chattahoochee river is still greater 
to the top of the Blue Ridge, a maximum of 4,796 feet, and thence falls to the 
Tennessee line, a distance of about 150 miles from Macon, on the southern border. 

Bordering the metamorphic on its northwestern limit are ranges of hills having 
various names and a general trend southward from the Tennessee line to the Etowah 
river and the southeastern corner of Bartow county, and thence westward to the 
Alabama line. These ranges are metamorphic in character and are higher than 
the Northwestern Georgia region, not excepting its mountains. Frcnn the tops of 
these ranges we overlook the region popularly known as " Northwest Georgia," 
whose surface is prevalently characterized by abrupt ridges (mostly synclinal), con- 
sisting of folded paleozoic rocks, varying from sandstones, shales, and cherts to lime- 
stones, with a general trend south-southwest, and with broad agricultural valleys. 

NORTHWEST GEORGIA. 

The region of Northwest Georgia extends from the Cohutta, Pine Log, AUatoona 
and Dug Down mountains to the Alabama and Tennessee State lines, and embraces 
an area of 3,360 square miles, including the counties of Dade, Walker. Catoosa, 
Whitfield, Murray, Gordon, Chattooga Floyd, Bartow and Polk. The lands are 
found to change and alternate at every few miles in cnjssing the trend of mountains 
and valleys, and these changes are usually quite apparent in the natural growth of 
the country, and in the color, relative fertility and adaptation of soils. The great 
variety of soils, together with a diversity of climate, due to the varying altitudes of 
this country'-, render it suitable for the successful culture of perhaps every agricultural 
product of the temperate climate. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The country is banded by a number of mountains, ridges and valleys, extending 
with a general parallelism in an approximate northeast and southwest direction 
approaching nearest to north and south in the eastern part of the division, and with 
divergent mountains running nearer to the east and west in the southern and central 
portions. Sand, Lookout, and Pigeon mountains, in the northwestern corner of 
the State, are synclinal table, lands belonging to the Alleghany coal field. These 
vary in altitude from 800 to 1,200 feet above the adjacent valleys, and are usually 
trough shaped on the top, having somewhat elevated borders along their brows and 
precipitous sides, marked by perpendicular sandstone bluffs. Tlmse mountains have 
an area on the top, of rolling and often nearly level sandy lands, amounting in the 
aggregate to 200 square miles. 

CLIMATE, 

The annual mean temperature in this part of the State varies, according to locality, 
from about 50° to 60° F. The regions of the lowest temperature are about the 
Cohutta mountains in the northeast, and on the table lands in the northwest, where 
the altitudes range from 1,800 to 3,000 feet above the sea, and that of the highest 
temperature in the valleys of the southern and central portions. This difference 
of climate is due, in part, to a difference of about one degree of latitude between 
the northern and southern limits of the region, but in a much greater degree to the 
general features of the country, mainly to the difference of altitude, and again to 
the general direction of the slope, which is toward the south in the central and most 



166 GEORGIA. 

of the southern portions, and towards the north in the northwestern and north- 
eastern portions. These influences all combine to give a warmer climate to most 
of the valleys drained by the Coosa river and its immediate tributaries. 

In the extremes of temperature the thermometer seldom rises above 90° F. in 
the summer, or falls below 20° in the winter. Vegetation usually starts sometime 
in March, and there is a difference of about a week in this respect between the more 
northern and the more southern counties, giving to the latter an earlier time for 
planting and a somewhat longer crop season. Severe frosts rarely occur after the 
first of April and about six months usually elapse between the latest frosts in the 
spring and the earliest in autumn. Ridges and mountain slopes of 100 feet or more 
in altitude above the valleys are free to a greater or less extent from spring frosts, 
and are less subject to cold dews in spring and summer. For this reason the fruit 
crop seldom fails in such situations. The climate of the table-lands differs in several 
particulars from that of the valleys, being much more uniform and having a lower 
mean temperature. 

The Smithsonian Rain Charts indicate for this part of the State a mean precip- 
itation of rain amounting for the summer to 10 inches and about the same for the win- 
ter months, with 40 inches for the entire year. The amount of rain, however, varies 
very much in different seasons, and also to some extent with the local features of 
the country, the heavier precipitations, as well as the greater number of rainfalls, 
occurring usually in the vicinity of the larger mountains. 

During the fall, winter and spring months continued southeast winds are 
usually accompanied within a few hours by clouds, and are commonly followed 
within thirty-six hours by a fall of rain. These rain spells often continue through 
two or three days of cloudy weather, with either occasional showers or else slow 
and constant or drizzling rains. Rain clouds from this direction are generally dis- 
persed by westerly or northwesterly winds, and the clearing off is usually preceded 
by brisk showers accompanied by gusts of wind. Snow clouds, unlike the rain 
clouds in winter, come from a northwest direction. Snows, however, are compara- 
tively unusual, and the winter season very often passes without a snowfall that lies 
on the ground. A snow of six inches depth or one that covers the ground for more 
than two or three days in the valleys is unusual ; but on the mountains snows are 
somewhat more frequent. Southeasterly winds in the summer season are not so 
commonly accompanied by rain clouds as in the cooler portions of the year, but the 
vapor with which the atmosphere is charged, mainly from this source, is condensed 
into clouds usually by cold winds approaching from the northwest. Thus the 
summer rains, and particularly the thunder-storms, come with clouds drifting in a 
direction almost the opposite of that of the winter rains. Severe wind-storms in 
the warm season are almost uniformly from the west. 

SOIL. 

The lands in this portion of Georgia are divided into several classes : 
TJw Gray Sandy Lands are mostly on the eastern sides of Murray and Gordon, 
and the eastern and southern sides of Bartow and Polk counties. The soil is of 
moderate productiveness. The lands are mostly in forests, owing to the broken 
character of the country. The growth consists of red, black, post and mountain 
oaks, hickory, chestnut, and short-leaf pine. In the higher portions of the Cohutta 
mountains there are spruces, holly, and white pine. 

Flatiooods.—l^he^e, soils are of varied texture, and their topography is corres- 
pondingly diversified with mountains, hills and nearly level " flatwoods," but the 
soils are nearly everywhere of one general character, at least with regard to sterility. 
The most extensive area of these lands is that of the flatwoods, near the Oostenaula 
and the Coosa rivers, in Gordon, Floyd and Polk counties, and a mountainous 
section south of the Coosa river, in Floyd and Polk counties, belonging to the same 



GEORGIA. 167 

formation and with which these flatwoods are continuous. It occurs again in a belt 
of hills in the southern part of Murray county, extending southward nearly across 
the county of Gordon. 

Red Clay Lands. — This region covers in Georgia, about 400 square miles, occurring 
in belts of from half a mile to 2 or 3 miles in width, and is found in all the counties 
under consideration except Dade. The formation affords an argillaceous soil of an 
orange or light red color, and is of great importance, nearly the entire area consisting 
of slightly rolling or nearly level lands, most of which have been long under culti- 
vation. It has a good deal of clay in it, is more or less calcareous and of easy 
culture. It rolls enough for good drainage. The forest growth is red, white and 
Spanish oaks, hickory, dogwood, chestnut, pine ; the principal agricultural products 
corn, oats, wheat, clover and grasses, cotton. Land of this character that has been 
kept in cultivation for thirty or more years, with little or nothing returned to the 
soil for its improvement, will now produce about 20 bushels of corn, 6 bushels of 
wheat and 10 bushels of oats to the acre. These lands are, however, capable of a 
high degree of improvement, and where they have been properly kept up, the yield 
is good. The lands where hilly are inclined to wash. The valleys abound in 
springs ; water in wells obtainable at from 20 to 40 feet. With fertilizers these 
lands will produce 500 pounds of seed cotton to the acre. 

Gray Siliceous Soils of the Ridges. — This region covers an area of 894 square 
miles, or about one-fourth of the entire extent of country. The formation gives 
rise to ridges or knobby belts of country of from 1 mile to 10 miles in width, with 
heights varying from 100 to 300 feet. Where these belts are broad they often con- 
tain lands that are nearly level or at least consist of low rolling hills. The lands 
have a gravelly soil varying in color from light to dark gray, with generally a 
porous gravelly subsoil; but in some places there is a good clay subsoil, with 
a gravelly soil of a dark brown or red color. These lands are generally regarded 
as poor and are, for the most part, in the original forests. The prices range from 
50 cents to $3 per acre, according to situation, the highest values being given to 
such as adjoin the valley lands, without regard to their adaptation to culture. 
Recently attention has been attracted to these as among the most profitable lands 
for cotton. They are found to give a better immediate return for manures than the 
richer valley lands, and their present cheapness and comparatively easy culture, 
with their general healthfulness, give them additional importance. The timber is 
of good size and consists of red, black, mountain, post, white and Spanish oaks, 
chestnut, pine, hickory, dogwood, sour wood and black gum. The oaks predom- 
inate, but chestnut and short -leaf pine are generally abundant. Corn does not do 
well on these lands, after a few years cultivation, except in very rainy seasons. 
With the use of fertilizers wheat might be made a profitable crop, as it is less sub- 
ject to disaster, and nearly always matures a better developed grain than on the 
richer valley lands; but without fertilizers it does not " tiller "pr spread well, and 
the average yield is not so good. The lands are well suited for fruit culture, the 
trees being healthy and long-lived, and the tops and slopes of ridges here have an 
immunity from late spring frosts that often kill the fruit on lower lands. There are 
no springs or constantly running streams in the central portions of these belts, and 
water is obtained, with some uncertainty, at depths of from 70 to 100 feet in wells 
that always require curbing. 

Brmcn and Red Loams. — In Dade county, and in that portion of Catoosa, 
Walker, and most of Chattooga counties that lie west of Taylor's ridge, the lands 
are all highly calcareous, and are perhaps the richest uplands in the State. The 
timber is large and consists principally of red, Spanish and white oaks, hickory, 
poplar, sugar maple, post oaks and cedars, with an admixture of most of the varieties 
indigenous to the country and common to the valley lands. The lands generally 



168 GEORGIA. 

lie well, but are sometimes hilly and inclined to wash. Where the blue limestones 
axe nearly horizontal they are sometimes exposed or else lie in close proximity to 
the surface. Such lands are usually covered with a growth of cedar and red haw, 
and are known as cedar glades; but there are no veiy extensive areas of this kind. 
Where the limestones lie unexposed near the surface, this fact is usually indicated 
by a growth of post oak. The soil consists of two principal varieties, viz : a brown 
calcareous loam of the blue limestone areas, and a red calcareous loam of the rotten 
limestone. The first varies in color from a light to dark brown and almost black, a 
dark or chocolate brown being the most characteristic color, with a subsoil of lighter 
shade, sometimes approaching to red. The soil of the rotten limestone belts is of a 
dark red color with a red subsoil. There is quite a striking difference in the appear- 
ance of these lands, though in the more essential characteristics of productiveness 
and in adaptation to various crops a comparison shows no important difference. In 
Polk, Floyd and Murray counties the lands are red, but of a lighter color than that 
of the rotten limestones. Lands that have been in cultivation for 30 or more years 
will often produce from 30 to 50 bushels of corn to the acre. The soils seem to be 
considerably deteriorated for the wheat crop, but after the land has been rested in 
clover, and a crop of this turned under, from 10 to 20 bushels is not an unusual 
yield. Cotton has not been grown to much extent on these lands north of Floyd 
county, and in this county and Polk about 600 pounds of seed cotton per acre is the 
usual yield. 

Svl)- Carboniferous Brown Loam Lands. — The rocks of this formation consist of 
limestones arenaceous shales, and siliceous or cherty limestones. The lands, which 
are generally rolling, but sometimes nearly level where the valleys are broad, have 
a brown soil that is calcareous and siliceous or sandy, with sufficient clay in the 
subsoil to give it a somewhat retentive character, and yet admit of good drainage, 
even where the lands are nearly level. The areas of this character are in the valleys 
immediately around Sand, Lookout, and Pigeon mountains, in the broader valleys 
immediately east of Taylor's ridge, and again, east of Horn's mountain, viz : West 
Armuchee valley in Walker county. Sugar valley in Gordon, Dirt Town valley in 
Chattooga, and Texas valley, with a large portion of the countrj^ to the west of 
Coosa river in Floyd county. These are decidedly the best cotton uplands in this 
part of the State, yielding often, without fertilizers, from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds of 
seed cotton to the acre. They seems to be especially adapted to the cotton crop, but 
corn, wheat, and oats do well. 

The Sandy Lands of the Mountain Summits are from nearly level to rolling and 
hilly. Sand mountain in Dade county. Lookout mountain in Dade, Walker and 
Chattooga counties, and Little Sand mountain in Chattooga county, afi'ord the lands 
of this character. The daily range of the thermometer here is about 50 per cent, less 
during the summer months than in the valleys, though the daily minimum temper- 
ature is usually but 20° or 80° less. The temperature is too low for cotton. The 
lands are especially adapted to fruit culture and to a great variety of vegetables. A 
variety of mineral springs is found on these table lands. The timber is of medium 
size, consisting of mountain, white and red oaks, chestnut, pine and hickory, with 
less undergrowth than is common to other woodlands in this part of the State, and 
with a good coat of grass covering the surface nearly everywhere. 

Alluvial Lands.— In the mountains, where the streams are rapid, the alluvial 
lands have but little extent, but in the valleys the creek and river bottoms are com- 
paratively broad ; the bottom lands vary from about one-eighth of a mile on small 
streams to 1 mile or 2 miles on the larger ones, the greater part of their widths being 
generally on the western side of the stream. The alluvial deposits of small streams 
vary more in character, those of the larger ones in general being most productive. 
Alluvial lands with a large proportion of sand are the only ones on which cotton 



GEORGIA. 169 

has been grown with success, the Coosa and Etowah rivers affording some of the 
best cotton lands in this part of the State. 

THE METAMORPHIC REGION. 

The rocks and soils characterizing the Metamorphic Region cover the whole 
north half of the State except Northwestern Georgia. Its southern limit follows 
an irregular line passing through the cities of Augusta, Milledgeville, Macon and 
Columbus. These cities, situated respectively on the Savannah, Oconee, Ocmulgee 
and Chattahoochee rivers, mark the heads of navigation, shoals and falls in the 
streams at these points being formed by the outcropping gneisses and other meta- 
morphic rocks. The dividing line between this and the Northwestern region would 
pass from Alabama slightly northeastward through the southern part of Polk county 
to the northern part of Paulding, and into the southeastern corner of Bartow, thence 
north through the eastern part of Bartow, Gordon and Murray counties, into the 
State of Tennessee. There are, in all, fifty -six entire, and porti(jns of seventeen 
counties included in the Metamorphic Region, and the area is approximately 19,090 
square miles. The entire surface of the country is or has been heavily tim])ered, 
with the exception of the bald areas, without either vegetation or soil, where granite' 
is exposed. The timber growth common to the entire region comprises red, white, 
post and black jack oaks, chestnut, hickory, short-leaf pine, dogwood, black gum^ 
and walnut on the uplands, and poplar, ash, elm, sycamore, birch and sweet gum' 
on the lowlands. It has been estimated that of the entire Metamorphic Region about 
46 per cent, has been cleared for cultivation, leaving 54 per cent, of the original 
growth still standing. The northern portion of the region differs so widely in its 
features from the rest of the Metamoi-phic counties that it will be described under 
the subdivision of the Blue Ridge region. 

THE BLUE RIDGE. 

Soon after entering Georgia, and especially after leaving Rabun county, it is 
but little else than a long and high ridge, so narrow and with sides so steep that it 
forms a most convenient boundary line south westward between the counties north 
and south of it. From the main ridge a number of others form, as it were, otfshoots 
known by different names. In Pickens county the Blue Ridge terminates with 
several isolated and short mountain ridges which have the same trend as the main 
ridge. Another line of high mountain ridges leaves the terminus of the Blue Ridge 
proper, and, with a northw^estwardly trend, passes through Gilmer and Fannia 
counties into Tennessee. The general elevation of the valley lands at the foot of 
the ridges is from 1,600 to 1,800 feet, and from them the mountains rise abruptly 
from 2,000 to 3,000 feet, their sides and sharp summits being covered with a some- 
what dense timber growth. The counties included in the Blue Ridge region are 
Kabun, Towns, Union, Fannm, Gilmer, Pickens, Dawson, Lumpkin, WWte and 
Habersham, making a little over 3,000 square miles. About 33^ per cent, of their 
aggregate area is estimated to be too hilly and broken for tillage. 

MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN METAMORPHIC, OR MIDDLE GEORGIA. 

Southward from the Blue Ridge counties the elevation of the country becomes 
less and the surftice less mountainous, though still hilly to the Chattahoochee river. 
The mountains now are mere isolated ridges or points of from 500 to 700 feet above 
the general level of the country. Their sides are steep and their sununits sharp, 
and they are all timbered. Sawnee mountain, in Forsyth county, is 1,908 feet high,' 
and Kennesaw mountain, in Cobb county, is 1,809 feet high. Only 7 per cent.°of 
the lands of the eleven counties embraced in this region is too broken for successful 
tillage, and, together with the Blue Ridge region, it forms the great gold-bearing 
belt of the State from North Carolina to Alabama. Other minerals also occur, such 



170 GEORGIA. 

as corundum, asbestos and copper. On the south side of the Chattahoochee river, 
and within a few miles of it the ridge, which in Habersham county is high and 
prominent, falls in elevation south westward to Atlanta, and to that point is the 
water-divide of the Atlantic and Gulf tributaries ; its summit is very nearly marked 
by the course of the Air- Line Railroad. 

Atlanta, situated on the point where the water-divide turns to the southeast, 
has an elevation of 1,050 feet above the sea and 288 feet above the Chattahoochee 
river. The height of the ridge above the surrounding country is scarcely precept- 
ible, as it rises gradually northeastward to Habersham county, where the ascent. 
from the south is very abrupt for several hundred feet. From the river southward 
to the sand hills, a distance of about 70 miles, there is a gradual fall of 400 feet, the 
elevation being about 600 feet along the lower limit of the Metamorphic, except that 
section between the Ocmulgee and Ogeechee rivers, which has an altitude of only 
800 or 400 feet. About 1^ per cent, of the area of the twenty-two counties in this 
region is too hilly and broken for tillage. 

TOPOGRAPHY AND CHARACTER OP THE LAND. 

The surface of country covered by gray lands is always more or less hilly and 
rolling, but has broad, level areas either on the ridges or in the valleys. Except in 
in the mountains the slopes are not too steep to forbid cultivation. Their lights 
sandy nature makes them liable to wash, and they require management to prevent 
this. The soils are coarse, gray and sandy, frequently dark colored for an inch or 
two, with decayed vegetation, are more or less gravelly, from 3 to 12 inches deep,, 
and have a yellow, clayey subsoil. The growth is generally short-leaf pine, post, 
Spanish (red) and white oaks, hickory, dogwood and persimmon, with some ash,, 
black and sweet gums, poplar, walnut and cherry on the lowlands. Pine has not 
as large a growth as on granite lands, and only the short-leaf variety is found. 
Though these lands are said to produce late crops of cotton, they are preferred to- 
the red clays as being more productive and because they enable the stalks to stand 
the drought better. They are also easy to till, and a larger area can be cultivated 
than of the red lands with the same labor. Fresh lands yield from 500 to 70O 
pounds of seed cotton per acre, as do also old lands by the use of fertilizers ; but 
without fertilizers the latter yield only 250 or 300 pounds per acre, or about 100 
pounds of lint. 

Red Lands. — Under the designation of red lands are included both red sandy 
and clayey soils, no matter from what source derived. There are a great many- 
different red belts. A narrow belt of mulatto land reaches from Rabun county- 
southward into Lumpkin, and thence probably turns northward into Forsyth and 
Milton, but becomes very nmch intermixed with gray soils in those counties. 
Along the foot of the Blue Ridge some red areas also occur, in Towns and Union 
counties, where there is much hornblendic rock. Another red belt from the north- 
eastern part of Cherokee county passes southward (south of Canton,) into Cobb,, 
Paulding and North Carroll counties. Kennesaw and Lost mountains, in Cobb 
county, are composed entirely of hornblendic gneisses. From the Chattahoochee 
river southward to the pine hills the country embraces the largest areas of red 
lands. Chattahoochee ridge of Habersham county is composed mainly of horn- 
blendic rocks, and on the south, lying parallel with the river, is a narrow belt of 
red land extending into Fulton county to the granite section at East Point, with an 
apparent continuation on the west, into Coweta and Troup counties, and termina- 
ting a little w^est of La Grange ; thence, after a narrow break, a wide area extends 
southwesterly into Alabama. On the east and south of the central granite regions- 
the red lands largely predominate, covering large areas and occurring in wide belts. 
Another extensive belt of red land occurs north of Milledgeville, Baldwin county, 
and along the line of the southern granite region westward and northeast into 



GEORGIA. 171 

Hancock county. The largest of these belts is that which enters the county of 
Franklin from South Carolina with a southwest trend, and turning southward 
through Clarke, Morgan and other counties, again turns southwest to the sand hills. 
The belt at first is very wide, covering nearly the whole of Franklin, and its lands 
are formed principally from hornblendic rocks ; but southward it narrows, and 
biotite gneisses are occasionally found associated with the strata. In the south- 
eastern part of the region there are but few red areas, and these are mostly from 
hornblendic rock, and lie on the outskirts of the granite regions. 

TOPOGRAPHY AND CHARACTER OF THE SOILS. 

The surface of the country occupied by these red lands is rolling or undulating 
and often somewhat hilly, there being but few very level areas and then not in very 
large tracts. Very little is too broken for cultivation. The growth is red or Spanish, 
white and post oaks, hickory, chestnut, dogwood and some short-leaf pine, with 
poplar, ash, walnut, cherry and buckeye in the lowlands of some of the counties. 

Ths Red Lands are usually sandy for a depth of several inches, and hence are 
rather easily cultivated, especially in dry weather. Decayed vegetation frequently 
gives to them a dark or black surface, but the subsoils and underclays are very red. 
The lands are often good cotton lands, particularly if soil be sandy. Yields vary, 
according to quahty of lands, from 300 to 1,000 pounds per acre on fresh lands. 
Lands are in general difficult to till in wet weather, being sticky, and in dry seasons 
are very hard and compact. Except perhaps in the southern counties, these red 
clay lands are considered best for small grain, (especially oats,) as they are cold, and 
their cotton crops are late in maturing. 

Granitic Lands. — Large and small areas of gray sandy soils, having outcropping 
and underlying granite rocks, are found in many counties of the Metamorphic 
region, but chiefly in its southern half, and cover about 2,600 square miles. 

TOPOGRAPHY AND SOILS. 

The surface of the country is generally rolling and broken, with sharply defined 
and rounded hills in locaUties which have the granite boulders or rounded masses, 
and broad, level areas when only the flat rock underlies the land. The almost 
universal timber growth on all these lands is pine (either long or short-leaf), with 
oak, chestnut, hickory, and some black jack. The soil is often a coarse gray or 
gravelly sand, from 3 to 6 inches deep, with a subsoil of yellow or red clay, more 
or less sandy, or sometimes a whitish impervious clay, the result of feldspar decom- 
position. The soils are reported by some as cold, but are easily tilled and well 
adapted to cotton culture. The yield per acre on these lands is abount 800 pounds 
of seed cotton when fresh and unmanured, equal to 270 pounds of lint. Cotton is 
planted only on the uplands, it being liable to rust on the lowlands. 

LOCALITIES. 

The largest area of granitic lands Hes south of Atlanta, covering all of Clayton, 
Henry, Fayette and Rockdale counties, and portions of Fulton, Campbell, Coweta, 
Spalding, Butts, Newton, DeKalb, Walton, Gwinnett, and Jackson, while an oflshoot 
follows the river in a southwest course. It covers in all about 1,660 square miles, 
and has a general altitude of from 900 to 1,000 feet above the sea. Parts of the 
country are very broken and large areas lie beautifully for farming purposes in 
parts of the region. The lands lack lime, but contain a fair percentage of potash. 

Flat'iroods.—T\ie&e comprise but a small area in Georgia. The largest belt is 
found entering from South Carolina above the mouth of Broad river, passing with 
a southwest trend across Oglethorpe into the upper part of Greene county. In 
Elbert county the belt is from 5 to 7 miles wide, and has a dark colored soil and a 
growth of black jack oaks. In other counties the belt is about 4 miles wide and has 
a similar growth. The lands are very level, and in places large ponds of water are 
found. The soil is tough in places like pipe-clay, but sometimes produces good 
cereals. 



172 GEORGIA. 

The lands north of the Chattahoochee river on the northeast have almost 
entirely gray sandy soils, with but a few strips of red clay. The subsoils are almost 
universally clays. This section has been designated the " Northeast Division " by 
tlie State Department of Agriculture, and the yield per acre, with fair cultivation, 
is reported as follows: Corn, 20 bushels; wheat, 15 bushels; oats, 25 bushels . rye, 
8 bushels ; barley, 25 bushels ; hay, from 2 to 3 tons ; sorghum syrup, 75 gallons. 
Tobacco, buckwheat, and German millet can also be grown with great success. 
The fruits adapted to the section are the apple, cherry, pear, grape, plum (in all its 
varieties), peach, gooseberry, raspberry and strawberry. 

In the rest of the Metamorphic or Middle Georgia region the products are : 
Cotton, corn, oats and wheat, and all the grains and grasses, and even tobacco may be 
grown successfully. After the coast country, this divisicjn was the first settled, and 
has continued to be the most populous in the State. A large proportion of the land 
has suffered temporary exhaustion by injudicious culture, which claimed everything 
from the soil and returned nothing ; but this ruinous practice is fast giving way to 
a more enlightened and economical system. The abandoned fields, grown up in 
stunted pines, and for from twenty to forty years considered useful only as pas- 
turage, have been restored to cultivation and are now among the most productive 
lands of the State. The fruits to which this section is best adapted are the peach, 
fig, apple, pear, strawberry and raspberry. The yield per acre of the common crops 
under ordinary culture is : Corn, 12 bushels ; wheat, 8 bushels ; oats, 25 bushels ; 
barley, 30 bushels ; rye, 8 bushels ; sweet potatoes, 100 bushels. 

THE CENTRAL COTTON BELT. 

The Central Cotton Belt includes that broad strip of country extending across 
the centre of the State in a slight south of west course from the Savannah river on 
the east to the Chattahoochee on the west, and is included between the Metamorphic 
on the north and the long-leaf pine and wire-grass regions on the south. Its width 
eastward from the Ocmulgee river has an average of about 40 miles, but on the west 
of that river it widens, its southern limit passing in a southwesterly course, via 
Albany, to the southern part of Early county. Its extreme width along the Chat- 
tahoochee river is about 90 miles. The area embraced is about 6,835 square miles, 
and includes all of the following counties, viz : Richmond, Glascock, Washington, 
Wilkinson, Twiggs, Houston, Taylor (nearly), Macon, Schley, Marion, Chattahoo- 
chee, Stewart, Quitman, Webster, Sumter, Lee, Terrell, Randolph, Clay and Calhoun; 
the lower or southern portions of Columbia, McDuffie, Warren, Hancock, Baldwin, 
Bibb, Crawford, Talbot and Muscogee ; the upper or northern portions of Early, 
Baker, Daugherty, Dooly, Pulaski, Laurens, Johnson, Jefferson and Burke, and the 
eastern part of Screven, along the river— all of twenty and parts of nineteen coun- 
ties. Within this Central Cotton Region there are three distinct belts, differing 
very widely from each other. The first is the Sand Hills and Pine Belt, on the 
north and bordering the Metamorphic region of the State. The northern limit of 
this belt is a few miles north of Augusta and Thomson, a few miles south of War- 
renton and Sparta, to Milledgeville, Macon, Knoxville, Geneva and Columbus, at 
which point the metamorphic rocks are found outcropping in the beds of the streams 
while the sand hills extend northward a short distance along its border. The 
southern limit is easily defined by the somewhat abrupt red clay hills along its 
border. Its width varies greatly, but is greatest on the east and west, about 25 or 
30 miles from each of the large boundary rivers. Between the Ogeechee and Flint 
rivers it is rather narrow, but widens to the west to 20 miles or more in Taylor and 
Marion counties. On the Chattahoochee river its southern limit is near the mouth 
of Upator creek. The area embraced in the sand hills is about 2,950 square miles.^ 

The surface of the country embraced in this belt is high and rolling, and this is 



GEORGIA. 173 

especially the case near its northern limit where the altitude is from 500 to 600 feet 
above the level of the sea, and sometimes 100 feet or more above the adjoining 
Metamorphic region. Southward the country falls to the foot of the line of red 
hills which often rise abruptly from its limit. Again, in otlier localities, as 
between the Flint and Ocmulgee rivers, the lower part of the belt presents a broad 
plateau which gradually declines southward. In tlie western portion of the belt 
the transition to the red hills is gradual. The country is very hilly and broken, 
with a height of from 100 to 150 feet above the streams, and is interspersed with 
deep guUeys, formed by the washing away of clays and sands. 

This belt is characterized by deep beds of white sands and gravel overlying 
white and variegated clay, with ledges of a gritty and micaceous mass, called by 
Professor Lyell, decomposed granite. The usual timber growth is long and short- 
leaf pine, scrub black jack oak, sweet gum, and some dogwood. The lands of the 
sand-hill regions have a soil of white sand from 6 to 12 inches deep, and usually a 
sandy soil underlaid by variegated clays, and are not very productive, except where 
fresh or highly fertilized. The yield, after a few years' cultivation, is only about 
200 pounds of seed cotton per acre, but on the best lands it is 300 pounds. A large 
proportion of the lands originally in cultivation now lies out. 

RED HILLS. 

A region of red hills occupies a narrow and interrupted belt, 4 or 5 miles wide, 
southward from the sand-hills region, and passes through the western part of the 
counties of Burke, Jefferson and Washington, the middle of Wilkinson and Twiggs, 
and the southern part of Houston to Flint river. West of that river, in the counties 
of Macon, Schley, Sumter, Webster, Stewart and "Randolpli, the red clays are found 
scattered over a large territory, and, with the exception of a few large areas, they 
are rather in patches, being frequently covered by the white sands of the yellow- 
loam region. The red-hills region is characterized by a high rolling or broken, and 
well-timbered surface, covered with deep red clay lands, more or less sandy, and 
having a thickness of from 20 to 50 feet, including siliceous fossil shells and rocks, 
and sometimes beds of green sands. 

SoiU. — The lands of these red clay hills are usually somewhat sandy, and have a 
depth of from 12 to 24 inches in the eastern counties, and from 6 to 12 inches in the 
others. The subsoil is a heavy clay loam, deeper in color than the soil and more 
clayey, which sometimes overlies a variegated and plastic pipe-clay. The growth is 
oak, hickory, short-leaf pine and dogwood, with beech, maple and poplar on the 
lowlands. The lands of the belt lying between the Savannah and Flint rivers are 
considered the best of the region, and not only occur in larger areas, but are more 
productive and durable, and are easily tilled. The subsoil is stiff and tenacious, 
and hard to break up. The lands yield from 800 to 1,000 pounds of seed cotton 
when fresh, and 500 pounds after a few years' cultivation. Reports give the 
product, after fifty years' cultivation, as 300 pounds. These lands are, however, 
preferred for small grain. West of Flint river the red clay lands of southern 
Stewart, Webster and Randolph counties have similar productiveness and durabiUty ; 
but the more sandy of the red lands while having, when fresh, a yield equal to the 
above, are not as durable. 

THE OAK, HICKORY AND LONG-LEAF PINE HILLS, OR YELLOW LOAM REGION. 

This region forms a belt of country across the State between the Savannah and 
the Chattahoochee rivers, and extends in width from the sand hills south to the 
pine barrens and wire-grass region. Its width varies greatly. The entire area em- 
braced by the yellow loam region, including the red hills, is about 6,650 square miles. 
The surface of the country between the Savannah and Flint rivers, while very broken 
in some localities, is gradually rolling with ridges parallel to the streams, and a 
timber growth of long-leat pine, post and Spanish oaks and hickory. The long-leaf 



174 GEORGIA. 

pine is most prominent, and in many places is almost the exclusive timber. This 
belt or region is underlaid at from three to ten feet by the same bed of soft limestone 
and marl found under the red hills. The soils of this eastern part of the belt 
are sandy and gray, except on the immediate surface, where they are dark from 
decayed vegetation. Black, brown and yellow ferruginous gravel is abundant in 
some of the counties on the surface and mixed with the soil. The subsoil, at a 
depth of from 3 to 9 inches from the surface, is either a yellow clay loam or yellow 
sand. Lands having the latter are poor and unproductive, except perhaps for a year 
or two. The better class of soils, with their clay subsoils and mixed growth of long- 
leaf pine, oak and hickory, are easy to cultivate and are well drained, and yield an 
average of 500 pounds of seed cotton per acre when fresh, and 250 or 300 pounds 
after a cultivation of ten years. West of Flint river these lands cover the greater 
part of the oak and hickory region. The upper counties and those along the Chat- 
tahoochee river, as far south as Clay county, are hilly and are usually covered with 
a heavy deposit of sand. Underneath the sandy soil are the red and yellow clays 
over variegated and joint clays with cretaceous marls. The growth of these hills is 
oak and hickory, with a large proportion of short and long-leaf pine, which also 
characterize these lands southward. Ferruginous stand stone is abundant in some 
localities on high points. These lands are but sparingly under tillage, owing to 
their broken character and to the abundance of good valley lands. Going south- 
ward from these hills the country becomes more level, and soil is a finer loam. The 
clay subsoil is covered by the sandy deposit to a much less depth, and buhrstone is 
found in fragments. There are large areas of level uplands in Sumter, Webster and 
Stewart counties, in the lower parts of Macon, Schley and Marion, and in the upper 
parts of Lee, Terrell, Randolph and Quitman. In these counties the clays are 
underlaid by a hard limestone, outcrops of which are seen in the bluffs of the Chat- 
ahoochee south of Pataula creek, Clay county, in the caves of Randolph county 
north of Cuthbert, and in the bluffs of Flint river at Montezuma. Pine, oak and 
hickory also characterize the growth of this section. Going still farther south, into 
the counties of Clay, Early, Calhoun, Terrell, and the lower part of Randolph and 
Sumter, we find the lands very level except along the river. The sandy soil is still 
more shallow, and the red or yellow clay subsoil often comes to the surface, forming 
by admixture a mulatto soil sometimes 10 inches in depth. Long-leaf pine becomes 
more abundant and the growth more open. Lime sinks are found and underground 
streams are frequently seen flowing through them. Streams disappear and as sud- 
denly reappear miles away. The yield of the fresh uplands region, as claimed by 
correspondents with but few exceptions, is from 600 to 800 pounds of seed cotton 
per acre, or from 250 to 400 pounds on lands of several years' cultivation. There is, 
however, some difference in the crops of various portions of the area, some producing 
fully 25 per cent, less than others. 

SOUTHERN OAK, HICKORY AND PINE REGION. 

The region embraced in this division comprises portions of the counties of 
Decatur, Thomas and Brooks, lying along and near the Florida line. The country 
is for the most part high and rather rolling, and is about 75 feet above the open 
wire-grass country on the north, or 130 feet above the river. The area in the region 
is about 2,317 square miles. The surface of the country is for the most part very 
open, with a tall timber growth of long-leaf pine. The soil is very generally sandy, 
from 6 to 12 inches deep, with mostly a clayey subsoil underlaid by white limestone. 
A peculiar feature of the region is the presence of a red clay loam in small localities 
where the timber growth is oak and hickory. Wire grass occurs but seldom in this 
region, and siliceous shell rocks are almost entirely absent, except in some lowlands. 
The yield is reported to be from 600 to 800 pounds of seed cotton per acre after four 
years' cultivation. 



GEORGIA. 175 

LOWLANDS OF THE CENTRAL COTTON BELT. 

The bottoms of the larger streams are usually liable to yearly overflows, and 
are, therefore, but little in cultivation. The hummocks, or second bottoms of the 
larger streams, above overflow, are largely under cultivation, and on some of the 
streams are very extensive. They are very level, and have a growth similar to the 
bottoms. The soil is a rich sandy loam, from 12 to 24 inches deep, with much 
decayed vegetation, and is considered the most productive of all the lands of the 
belt. Of seed cotton these hummock soils yield about 1,400 pounds when fresh, 
and from 800 to 1,000 pounds after being cultivated a few years. Heavy clays also 
underlie the lands. These lands are, however, not considered best for cotton, that 
crop being liable to injury from early frosts and rust, though large crops are pro- 
duced. They are said to be late, cold, and ill-drained. The alluvial lands of the 
Savannah river are very level and wide, and have a growth of beech, white and 
water oaks, hickory, ash, holly, bay, birch, walnut, mulberry, sycamore and cotton- 
wood. The soil, a fine brown loam mixed with scales of mica, is from 2 to 3 feet 
deep, with a putty-like tenacious pipe-clay, which is hard to till, and breaks up in 
clods. These lands are largely under cultivation, being well adapted to cotton, corn 
and grain, though the former suffers much from rust and early frosts. The yield in 
seed cotton is about 1,500 pounds on fresh land, and 1,000 pounds after a few years' 
cultivation ; and, unless prevented by having the rows far apart, or by other means, 
it grows to a height of 5 or 6 feet. Very little of this land lies out. 

Along the Chattahoochee river, south from Columbus to Georgetown, there are 
many level valleys of open prairie occupying a position similar to the second bottoms 
of other streams, but higher and without their growth. In Muscogee county these 
valleys are very broad and open, and have a fine sandy kmm soil, from 5 to 12 inches 
deep, and a heavy clay subsoil. In the counties south, where the blue clay marls 
approach near the surface, these prairie valleys are richer, the soil being darker and 
more tenacious. The sand and red clays of the adjoining hills enter more or less 
into its composition. In the southwestern part of Stewart county this valley is two 
or more miles wide. The lands under cultivation yield from 800 to 1,200 pounds 
of seed cotton per acre when fresh, and from 600 to 800 pounds after five or ten years 
of constant tillage. 

LONG-LEAF PINE AND WIRE-GRASS REGION. 

This region covers a large portion of Southern Georgia, south of the oak and 
hickory and pine lands of the Central Cotton Belt, extending from the Savannah 
river on the east to the Chattahoochee river on the west, and including in its area 
eighteen whole counties and large parts of others. The entire region is, as it were, 
a vast plain very nearly level, except on the north, and covered with a growth of 
tall long -leaf pine. Their large and straight trunks are devoid of branches for from 
30 to 100 feet above the ground, and stand so far apart as to make an average of 
only from 50 to 75 trees per acre, with only here and there some undergrowth. In 
most of the region public roads are of use only as guides and a means of crossing 
any small streams that may come in the way, and to avoid the fallen timber that 
marks numerous storm-tracks. Over large areas, where the lands are a dark sandy 
loam with yellow sandj^ subsoil, the roads are compact, hard and smooth. Houses 
in this region are few. Lumber, turpentine, resin, and charcoal are prominent 
products. Turpentine farms of from 10,000 to 75,000 trees each are found throughout 
the entire region, and especially in the middle, eastern and southeastern portions. 
The assertion that the long-leaf pine will not return on land cut over or burned ofi", 
needs to be vehemently denied, for it has obtained wide credence. Every close 
observer, however, can go into the wood and find pines (long leaO from a foot high, 
on through all sizes. Doubtless yearly bxirmngs over do much to prevent the growth 



176 GEORGIA. 

of young pines; still, even under these difficulties, plenty of young long-leaf (pm^^ 
Australis,) pines can be found. The region takes it name from the so-called wire 
grass that covers the entire region from the Savannah river westward to the Cliatta- 
hoochee river, and into Alabama. 

STREAMS. 

The streams of the Long-leaf Pine and "Wire-grass Region, soon after they 
leave the oak and hickory belts, become slow in their movements, and have banks 
from 25 to 30 feet high (showing on some of the streams heavy beds of sandstone)^ 
with bottom lands not very wide. Southward they become slower in movement^ 
with bottom lands increasing in width. The small streams are usually very 
sluggish, and dark from decayed vegetation. The saw palmetto appears on the 
lowlands, while the pitcher plant also covers large areas. 

The surfoce of the upper and western portion of this region is somewhat rolling- 
or undulating, with a few low ridges or hills, and is elevated from 25 to 50 or even 
75 feet above the streams, and from 200 to 500 feet above the sea. This is especially 
the case in the northeastern and southwestern portions of the region, wiiich also 
differ from tbe rest in being underlaid by limestone (lime-sink region,) and having 
a better class of soil, as indicated by the occasional admixture of oak and hickory 
with the long-leaf pine. 

THE LIME-SINK REGION. 

The Lime-Sink Region lies chiefly on the west of the Atlantic and Gulf water- 
divide. The soft limestone underlying this section, instead of the sandstone alluded 
to, is accompanied on the surface, and sometimes in beds, by masses of a siliceous 
and aluminous and often fl.inty shell rock. The eastern limit of this Lime-Sink 
Region is marked by a line of low ridges, branching off southward from the main 
divide, and separating the waters of the Allapaha and Withlacoochee rivers from 
those ol the Flint river. This line passes through the eastern side of Worth and 
Colquitt counties, and southeastward into Brooks and Lowndes. The region em- 
braces about 7,020 square miles and includes the following counties and parts of 
counties : Screven (except a strip along the eastern and northern sides of the county)^ 
the lower purt of Burke, the upper part of Bulloch, all of Miller, Mitchell, Colquitt 
and Worth, the southern parts of Pulaski, Dougherty, Baker and Early, the northern 
parts of Decatur, Thomas, Brooks and Lowndes, the eastern parts of Dooley, Lee 
and Dougherty, and the w^estern parts of Irwin, Berrien, Dodge and Wilcox. 

In this Lime-Sink Region the banks of the streams are from 50 to 75 feet high^ 
and the bottoms rather narrow, with a growth of oak, hickory, walnut, magnolia 
and dogwood. The water is generally clear, though not rapid in movement. On 
the uplands the timber growih is almost exclusively long-leaf pine, except in the 
vicinity of large streams, w^here oak is found to some extent. The country is very 
open, and resembles very much the pine barrens, though it is not as level. The 
depressions of the surface, called " lime-sinks," are caused by the dissolution and 
wearing away of underlying limestone. Into one of these sinks sometimes a small 
stream falls and disappears, wiiile in another the underground stream may be seen 
flowing past. In others the w^ater is still and quiet, but rises and falls in conjunc- 
tion with some neighboring large stream, thus showing underground connections. 
Ponds are also abundant; one of these, near Bainbridge, Decatur county, being 3 
miles in circumference. Caves are often found associated with these sinks, and in 
some the great rush of air, that either enters or comes from them, has given to them 
the name of " blowing caves ". 

This is a better cotton-producing region than the pine barrens. The uplands of 
the region, with their long-leaf pine and wire grass, have a gray sandy soil, which 
is from 6 to 12 inches deep, and a red or yellow sandy clay subsoil. They yield at 



GEORGIA. 177 

first from 500 to 800 pounds of seed cotton per acre, but after eight or ten years, 
without fertilizers, this is diminished to 350 or 500 pounds. The country is so 
sparsely settled that the farms are located chiefly on the better classes of land. 
The narrow bottoms of some of the creek lands are very fertile. 

PINE BARRENS, OR SANDY, WIRE-GRASS REGION. 

The division known as the Pine Barrens proper covers an area of over 10,000 
square miles, and includes the following counties and parts of counties : Tattnall, 
Montgomery, Emanuel, Telfair, Appling, Coffee, the middle of Effingham, the 
southern portions of Bulloch, Johnson and Laurens, the eastern parts of Wilcox, 
Irwin, Berrien and Lowndes, the upper portions of Pierce, Wayne, Mcintosh, 
Liberty and Bryan, and areas in Jefferson, Washington, Dodge, Ware and Clinch. 
It has a generally level or slightly undulating surface, and is underlaid in many 
places by a sandstone, which juts out in bold bluffs on some of the streams. The 
soil is usually fine and sandy, with a yellow sandy subsoil, though clay frequently 
underlies it. The surface of the country in the upper counties is rolling or undu- 
lating, but becomes quite level southward, the soil also becoming less sandy. The 
lands contain much ferruginous gravel or brown pebbles. The Atlantic and Gulf 
water-divide forms a rolling country as it passes south and then southeast through 
the counties of Dooly, Wilcox, Irwin and Coffee. 

The Wire-Grass Region terminates near the coast, forming the second terrace. 
From this terrace there is a descent for 15 or 25 fieet to the the savannas and pine 
flat and palmetto lands. About eighteen counties are devoted to cotton culture, 
lumber and turpentine interests, absorbing nearly the whole attention of its country 
people, especially near the navigable water courses. The introduction of fertilizers 
in this section has made the cultivation of cotton profitable, and has broken up to 
some extent the old method of throwing away old land and taking in new. The 
soil of the uplands is sandy and gray or ash colored, 12 inches deep, and has a subsoil 
of yellow or orange colored loam. In the higher regions there is sometimes a clay 
subsoil approaching the surface, giving to the land greater fertility and durability, 
as indicated by the oak and hickory growth. The soil is frequently covered with 
gravel, either of quartz or ferruginous concretions, yellow or dark brown externally, 
and either smooth or rough with a black interior. These sandy soils, while pro- 
ducing a very good crop of cotton when new and fresh, very soon wear out, and 
without the aid of fertilizers their cultivation is not profitable. The yield in seed 
cotton on fresh sandy uplands, without the aid of fertihzers, is about 500 pounds 
per acre; after cultivation for several years this is diminished to about 300 pounds 
of seed cotton, or 100 pounds of lint, per acre. Of other crops, corn and oats yield 
10 bushels per acre, while sorghum cane does very well and much attention is 
given to its cultivation. The bottom lands in some counties are considered better 
than the uplands, but are more or less liable to overflow. In the northern section 
it is found that where cotton is cultivated it suffers from rust, and is liable to be 
killed by early frost; hence corn is raised instead of cotton. The soil is very sandy, 
and is almost colored black by decayed leaves and other vegetation. Its depth is 12 
inches or more, and it is sometimes underlaid by clay. The growth is poplar, 
cypress and titi, with some pine and "fever-tree" or Georgia bark {Pinckneya pubem). 
The second bottoms, or hummock lands, differ from the bottoms in bemg above 
overflow, but their other features are similar. 

I think that one great use these immense pine tracts will be put to some day 
will be to convert them into immense sheep walks, seeding them to Bermuda grass, 
white clover and red-top or orchard grass. These gravelly hills will doubtless, in 
many instances, become clad with vineyards. No doubt the Delaware grape will 
succeed well there. 



178 GEORGIA. 

PINE AND PALMETTO FLATS. 

The region thus designated lies in the southeastern corner ol the State, around 
Okefenokee swamp, and embraces mainly Charlton, Echols and Clinch counties 
and large portions of Ware, Pierce and Wayne. It is considerably higher than the 
belt of the coast region that extends across other counties to the Savannah river. 
The country is very level, open, and sparsely settled, and is covered with many 
swamps having a dense growth of gums, titi, sweet and loblolly bays, etc., forming 
an impenetrable thicket. 

COAST REGION. 

The region properly designated ^'savannas^'' occupies a belt of country from 10 to 
15 miles wide, between the pine barrens and wire-grass region on one side and the 
coast live oak lands on the other, extends from the Savannah to the Saint Marj^'s 
river, and embraces nearly all of the counties of Chatham, Bryan, Glyn and Cam- 
den, and large portions of Liberty and Mcintosh. The surface of the country is 
very level, and 10 or 15 feet above tide water, and comprises what is known as the 
"first terrace." Its northwestern limit is the bluff of the second or wire-grass 
terrace, passing through the lower part of Effingham (20 miles north of Savannah,) 
into Bryan, where it is 50 feet high. Southward through Liberty county this bluff 
forms the "gravel hill" south of Hinesville, which has an elevation of from 15 to 30 
feet above the sea. Deep sands are found here. Thence the limit extends through 
Mcintosh county to Waynesville, and, on the eastern side of the Saltilla river, into 
and across Camden county at a distance of about 15 miles east of Colerain. At this 
point the rise is about 25 feet. Within this region, adjoining the marsh lands, there 
is a belt of live-oak land, having a width of several miles, which properly belongs 
to the savannas. This region, along the first or lower terrace, is noted for its beau- 
tiful meadow or savanna lands, which are broad, flat and open plains, having no 
growth other than sparse and tall long-leaf pine and a thick undergrowth of saw 
palmetto, with here and there bunches of wire grass that has found its way down 
from the upper terrace. In the spring and early summer months these plains are 
covered with a dense growth of flowers which gives to them an enchanting appear- 
ance. 

I have thus given great space to the many minute divisions made of Georgia 
lands. Georgia is such an immense State, so prominent agriculturally, has caught 
the public eye so thoroughly that I have felt it worth while to show to the reader, 
wiio may be thinking of making a home there as a farmer, as much of the State 
from an agricultural standpoint as I could, particularly displaying topographies and 
soils. Having seen something of the constituents of the various soils and their needs, 
let us see what Georgia possesses to supply these original defects or impair wasted 
fertility. This leads us to a consideration of her 

MARLS. 

Throughout the Central Cotton Belt there occur extensive beds of marl and 
limestone, beneath the sands and clays of the hills, often exposed along the banks 
and bluff's of the streams. The marls, composed of a mass of comminuted shells, 
are especially * valuable agriculturally, because of their richness in lime, and some- 
times in potash and phosphoric acid. They vary greatly in the thickness of their 
beds and in their character and composition, and mostly belong to the class of 
stimulant manures that serve by their lime to make available for plant use the food 
elements that exists in the soil in an insoluble condition. There are also other beds 
containing much green sand {glauc&nite), rich in potash and valuable as a nutritive 
manure. 



GEORGIA. 



179 



BLUE GREEN-SAND MARL. 

There is an extensive lot of blue marl along the banks of the Chattahoochee 
river, in Stewart county, which is rendered valuable by its green sand character. 
It occurs in a bed exposed some 15 or 20 feet, and for many miles along the river, 
dips to the southwest, and finally disappears below the water. 

TERTIARY MARLS. 

The tertiary marls are far more extensive, as well as more valuable, than are 
the cretaceous beds. They are generally a white and friable mass of broken shells 
and fine corals, and are so compact as to form almost perpendicular bluffs where 
■exposed on the larger streams. This is especially the case with the lower or Clai- 
borne beds, which occur at Fort Gaines, Clay county, forming there a bed 25 feet or 
more thick. This marl has numerous outcrops eastward to the Savannah rivBr, 
where thick beds occur at the foot of Shell Bluff and at Silver Bluff. It contains 
usually as much as 95 per cent, of carbonate of lime, and is well worth transporta- 
tion to the farms of the region and elsewhere. Its use upon the soil has been 
attended with a large increase in productiveness, as attested by several farmers in 
Lee county. When used broadcast on the land its effects are not usually apparent 
in the first year's crop ; but afterwards it produces a marked and continuous im- 
provement, provided there are fair amounts of potash and phosphoric acid already 
present in the soil. 

GREEN-SAND CLAYS. 

Overlying these beds of lunestone and white marl in the counties of Twiggs, 
Wilkinson and Houston are other beds of green-sand clays from 12 to 24 inches 
thick. These contain, as shown by analysis, from 2 to 3 per cent, of potash, and are 
well worth removal to those farms whose soils are lacking in this element of plant 
food. A complete analysis of the marl has not been made. Another bed of a white 
pulverulent marl occurs in the banks of the Saltilla river, at Burnt Fort, in Charlton 
county ; it is doubtless also Yerj rich in lime. 

Mr. John C. Smock, in Williams' Mineral Resmirces of the United States, gives 
the following localities of marl ; Bibb, Chattahoochee, Stewart, Quitman, Thomas, 
Randolph, Clay, Crawford, Washington, Houston, Pulaski, Charlton, Burke, Screven, 
Effingham, Chatham, Bulloch, Emmanuel and Jefi'erson counties. These counties 
occupy central and southern parts of the State. 

I take the following table from Williams' Mineral Resources of tlie United States, 
printed in 1883 : 

■ORES, MINERALS AND MINERAL SUBSTANCES, OF INDUSTRIAL IMPORTANCE 

WHICH ARE AT PRESENT MINED. i^ iruK i AJNCt, 



Mineralogical 
Name. 



Chalcocite . , 
Chalcopyrite 

Coal 

Gold 



Common Name. 



Buhrstone, millstone., 

Vitreous copper, copper 
glance. 

Pyritous copper ore, yel- 
low copper ore, copper 
pyrites. 

Coal 



Gold 



Remarks. 



Hematite Red Hematite, fossil ore 



Early, Burke, Screven, Bullock and Jefferson counties. 

Canton mine, Cherokee county; other localities with chal- 
copyrite. 

Canton mine, Cherokee county; other localities in Lump- 
kin, Fannin, Townes, Fulton, Carroll, Murray, Paulding, 
Haralson, Greene and Lincoln counties. 

Bituminous coal, Dade county; on west brow of Lookout 
mountain ; Coal Measures, in Chattooga county, and in 
Walker county. 

Auriferous distri(5t occupies one-third of State from North 
Carolina and Tennessee southwest and west to Alabama, 
occupying a large number of counties. Deep mines and 
placers, worked chiefly in Rabun, Lumpkin, Dawson, 
White, Hall and Union counties. The mining centres are 
at Dahlonega and vicinity, and about Auraria, in Lump- 
kin county. A third district is on the east side of State, 
in McDuffie, Lincoln and Wilkes counties. Gold occurs in 
quartz seams and veins; which traverse micaceous, talcose, 
chloritic and hornblendic schists. The soils, disintegrated 
rocks and gravels, and sands also are gold-bearing over 
wide areas. 

Lookout mountain, Dade county, a continuous stratum i to 
3 feet thick ; McLemore's cove, Dade county; Iron Ridge, 
Walker county ; Whitfield and Floyd counties. 



180 



GEORGIA. 



Mineralogical ' ,-> ^t 

Name. 



Hematite Specular iron ore 



Limonite 



Brown hematite. 



Muscovite. 



Marble 
Marl . . , 



Mica 

Slate (roofing), 



Remarks. 



Allatoona Hills, along Etowah river, Cherokee county, ex- 
tensive deposits ; valley of Etowah river, in Cass, Floyd, 
Murray and Paulding counties. 

Mine of Cherokee Iron Works, five miles east of Cedars- 
town, Polk county, very extensive bed ; i^tna Iron Works' 
ore bank, iEtna, Polk county ; ore banks of Ridge Valley 
Iron Works, Floj'd county; Hall's station banks and Bar- 
ton Iron Works, Floyd county; Peach-tree bank. Barton 
county; iron ore reported also in Fannin, Gilmer, Whit- 
field, Catoosa, Gordon, Haralson, Milton, Hall, Haber- 
sham, White, Jackson and Walker counties, in northwest 
and north part of State ; in Greene, McDuflSe and Burke, 
in central belt. 

Near Van Wert, Polk county, white ; Fannin, Gilmer, Whit- 
field, Floyd, Richmond, Walker, Catoosa and Chattooga 
counties, all in northwest part of State. 

Bibb, Chattahoochee, Stewart, Quitman, Thomas, Randolph, 
Clay, Crawford, Washington, Houston, Pulaski, Charlton, 
Burke, Screven, Efiingham, Chatham, Bullock, Emanuel 
and Jefferson counties. These counties occupy central 
and southern part of State. Marls have limited use in the 
immediate vicinity of diggings. 

Warren, Pickens county; Heard, Cherokee, Gwinnott, 
Townes and Carroll counties. 

Gentry's Quarry, near Van Wert, Polk county ; Rockmart, 
Polk county; Gordon and Barton counties. 



ORES, MINERALS, AND MINERAL SUBSTANCES OF INDUSTRIAL IMPORTANCE 
AND KNOWN OCCURRENCE, BUT WHICH ARE NOT AT PRESENT MINED. 



Amethyst 

Arsenopyrite 

Asbesto.« 

Barite 

Corundum 

Covelite 

Diamond 

Galenite 

Garnet 

Granite 

Graphite 

Itacolumite 

Kaolinite 

Magnetite 

Molybdenite.. . . 

Novaculite 

Opal 

Pyrite 

Sapphire 

Serpentine 

Silver, native . . . 
Talc 

Tetradymite . . . 
Tripolite 



Amethyst 

Mispickel 

Asbestos 

Barytes, heavy spar. . . . 

Emery 

Indigo copper 

Diamond 

Galena, sulphide of lead. 

Garnet 

Granite 

Plumbago, black lead... 

Flexible sandstone 

Kaolin, porcelain clay . . 

Magnetic iron ore 

Manganese ore 

Sulphide of molybdenum 

Oilstone 

Opal (fire-opal) 

Pyrites, iron pyrites.... 

Sapphire 

Serpentine 

Silver 

Steatite, soapstone 

Tellur-bismuth 

Infusorial earth 



Rabun, Cobb and Oglethorpe counties. 

Canton mine, Cherokee county. 

Rabun, Fulton, Townes, Habersham, De Kalb, Paulding 
and Troup counties. 

Near Allatoona, Barton county, extensive bed ; Murray and 
Barton counties. 

Rabun, Townes and Union counties. 

Canton mine, Cherokee county, with chalcopyrite and chal- 
cocite. 

White and Hall counties. Only few finds thus far. 

Harris' mine. Hall county, argentiferous galena with pyrite; 
Cohutta mountains; Murray, Floyd, Lincoln, Habersham, 
Hall and Union counties. 

Turner's mill, Paulding county. 

Stone mountain: Gwinnett, DeKalb, Heard, Oglethorpe. 
Clarke, Muscogee, Columbia, Richmond and Wilkes 
counties. 

Pickens and Carroll counties (specimens); Habersham, 
Cherokee, Carroll, Clarke, Elbert and Hart counties. 

Hall county. 

Cherokee, Pickens, Heard, McDuffie, Columbia and Rich- 
mond counties. 

Near Rome, Floyd county; near Villa Rica, Carroll county, 
no well'defined vein; Lumpkin and Carroll counties. 

Townes, Lincoln and Barton counties. In latter has been 
mined for use in manufacture of ferro-manganese. 

Heard county. 

McDuffie, Oglethorpe and Lincoln counties. 

Fire-opal, Washington county, good specimens as gems; 
Bullock county; hyalite in Burke and Screven counties. 

Fulton and Carroll counties. 

Blue sapphires have been found on Sequale creek. 

Rabun, Townes and Union counties. 

Union, Hall and Murray counties. 

Dalton, Whitfield county ; Cobb, L^nion, Fannin, Gilmer, 
Hall, Habersham, White, De Kalb, Fulton, Murray, Jas- 
per, Paulding, Elbert and Clayton counties. 

Polk, Lumpkin, Paulding and Cherokee counties. 

Murray, Whitfield and Lincoln counties. 



I have seen fine slates from Polk county. Tlie colors are black, red and olive. 
A scientist tells me it is in great force there. 

Messrs. Campbell & Rnffner lately compiled a pamphlet on a "Physical Survey 
of Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi along the line of the Georgia Pacific Railway," 
from which I quote : 

" While the chief mineral wealth of Georgia and Central Alabama is treasured 



GEORGIA. 181 

up in iron ores, limestones and coals, there are yet other valuable minerals that 
claim our attention. Of these Georgia holds a liberal share. The copper belt in 
Georgia and Alabama possesses some promising features, and has already attracted 
considerable attention, due in part to the successful utilization of the sulphur of 
these ores, in making sulphuric acid near Atlanta. Villa Rica, in Carroll county, 
38 miles west of Atlanta, is a good starting point for those who wish to make special 
examinations ol the present developments and future prospects of the copper ores. 
N. P. Pratt, Esq., in a Report of Progress, makes the following summary of observ- 
ations near Villa Rica, which we give with some abbreviations : 

" ' In 1852-1854 the copper fever spread here from Ducktown, Tenn., causing 
great excitement over every spot along the lode where hydrated oxide of iron ap- 
peared on the surface. High prices were refused by the owners of the lands, many 
oi whom undertook to open mines without any experience or knowledge of mining, 
and the natural result was the loss of capital and final abandonment of the 
work. The construction of the Georgia Pacific Railway, and the Atlanta experi- 
ment (which has shown that the sulphur formerly thrown away may be profitably 
used and the copper extracted from the residue), have given this matter new hfe.' 

" Graphite was found in the archaean rocks of Cobb county, about two miles 
north of the line of the railway, near Ross' store. There are indications of several 
seams running parallel with one another. The widest exposure was about two feet. 
From this deposit N. P. Pratt, Esq., obtained about fifty pounds for the Atlanta 
Exposition. He also sent a sample to New York, which was valued at $20 per ton. 
The graphite here is imbedded in hydromica slate. The outcrop is on a hill-side 
where mining would be easy. Another bed of graphite was cut in sinking a well 
in Haralson county, (Lot 105, Dist. 20, Sec. 3,) but its extent has not been deter- 
mined. The mineral occurs also in Carroll county, Ga., and in Cleburne, Clay 
and Randolph counties, Alabama. 

" Corundum.— Mr. Pratt gave special attention to this mineral, and collected 
some valuable facts in regard to it. He says : ' the first locality is about two miles 
south of Powder Springs, in Cobb county, Ga. * * * Here, about 160 pounds were 
taken from the surface ; one piece, of a flesh color, weighing as much as 3 pounds. 
* *■ * The average quality of the mineral is much finer than any I have seen in 
this country, not excepting the best specimens from North Carohna. The prevail- 
ing color is a dark flesh red, and the mineral almost free from impurities. Besides 
the large masses, characteristic crystals of a grayish color and rough surface were 
also found. A second locality of corundum is near Villa Rica, in Carroll county, 
Ga. From this point as much as a wagon load has been removed from the surface 
by diff"erent parties. * * * Specimens of various sizes were scattered in a line 
running southwest through two forty-acre lots.' 

•' Mm.— Very little attention has heretofore been given to this mineral in either 
Georgia or Alabama. Promising samples, however, have been obtained from near 
McAfee's Ferry, in Fulton county, from several points in Paulding county, and 
from near Carrollton, Carroll county, Ga. 

•' Tah {Steatite), Soajystone.— The best specimens of soapstone that we saw were 
from Douglas, Fulton and Paulding counties, Georgia. It has been quarried suc- 
cessfully about five miles south of Douglasville. 

" Potter's Clai/.— Georgia, has b^ds in Cherokee, Pickens, Heard, McDuffie, Col- 
umbia and Richmond counties, which are ncn yet developed. A white porcelain 
clay occurs in Randolph county, and near Sulphur Springs station, DeKalb county. 
This last locality is worked. Pottery clays are found also in Coosa and Macon 
counties, and extensive beds occur near Jacksonville, Calhoun county. 

''Manganese,— The mines furnishing the most valuable ores at present are located 
in the Etowah region, in Bartow county, Georgia. Sometimes, with the Georgia 



182 GEORGIA. 

ore, the amount of manganese reaches the neighborhood of 80 per cent. It runs 
from 66 to 70 per cent. 

"ANALYSIS OF GEORGIA ORE: 

Water i .17 

Silica 4.00 

Manganese dioxide 66. 40 

Ferric oxide 10.08 

Barium sulphate 0.29 

Calcium carbonate — trace. 

Oxide of manganese other than dioxide 18. 06 



Total I 



00.00 



In Georgia, what is commonly known as the " intensive system of culture," has 
excited great attention and considerable imitation. It may be said to be the fund- 
amental and vital principle of the revolution impending in Georgia with reference 
to agriculture. Its influence is communicating to other States, and its effects upon 
the State of Georgia are seen in many respects — most noticeably in the greatly 
increased production of agricultural staples, and in the elastic, sanguine, erect spirit 
of her agriculturalists. Her farmers have seen the possibilities in the soils of the 
State with judicious treatment, and, so far from the repining, shiftless, despondent 
spirit that marked, almost everywhere. Southern agriculture a few years ago, there is 
an aggressive hopeful spirit — an alacrity and confidence of endeavor. Hon. H. C. 
Furman, of Milledgeville, Baldwin county, who died about two years ago, was most 
prominent because of his extraordinary success in producing 75 bales of cotton and 
500 bushels of oats from 65 acres of old land that bad previously yielded but 8 bales, 
and was considered worthless. Mr. Furman's method is summed up as follows : 

" In 1878 I took 65 acres of land, the original growth of which was scrub oak and 
pine. It lies well, is slightly rolling, and was cleared nearly 30 years ago. The soil 
is light sand with a firm, red clay subsoil within 5 or 10 inches of the surface, and 
was worn out and considered worthless years ago. This piece of land, planted in 
cotton and cultivated carefully, without manure, yielded me the first year 8 bales ; 
second year, with 500 pounds of compost per acre, the yield was 12 bales ; third 
year, with 1,000 pounds of compost per acre, the yield was 23 bales; fourth year, 
with 2,000 pounds of compost per acre, the yield was 47 bales. This year (1882), I 
used 4,000 pounds of compost per acre, and have gathered 75 bales. From 5 acres 
of this- land I this year harvested 500 bushels of oats. I then planted it in cotton 
(June 7), and the yield was from 1^ to 2 bales per acre. My estimate of the cost of 
production this year is 4^ cents per pound. Up to this time I have made no great 
departure from the Dickson system of cultivation and preparation, have never sub- 
soiled, and only break my land in bedding, plant very late, never till after May, 
manure in the drill, opening deep and wide, listing in the manure and letting it 
stand until ready to plant ; then throw two furrows on the list and plant with a 
Dowlaw planter, breaking out the middles and finishing the bed after the cotton is 
in the ground, thus giving a porus bed for the plant and killing the first crop of 
grass at the same time ; cultivate with a sweep, and let the cultivation be as shallow 
as possible. I change the drills 12 inches every year, so as to enable me in four 
years to manure across my land with 4-foot rows. 

" The true secret of my success lies in the character of my compost. I insist 
upon furnishing each crop with a manure that contains every element necessary to 
that crop combined in the proportions which, the crop requires them. In order 
to do this accurate knowledge of the chemical composition of the crop (stalk, leaf 
and fruit,) is essential. For cotton, then, my aim was to make a compost that would 
contain the elements that form it, viz : Phosphoric acid, potash, soda, humus, lime, 
silica, and nitrogen, and in the right proportions. This compost is made with 30 
bushels of cotton seed, 30 bushels stable manure, or well-rotted leaves or organic 
matter, 400 pounds of acid phosphate, and 200 pounds of kainit. In this mixture 



GEORGIA. 183 

the kainit is indispensable. It furnishes potash, lime, magnesia, soda, and a sub- 
stance called " bittern," and, combined with humus, is a specific against rust in 
cotton. After manuring in the drill for four years and filling the ground with 
humus we come to a point where ideal cotton culture can begin. Now we begin 
to manure broadcast, turning it in flush, harrowing the ground, laying it off on a 
level in rows 4 by 4 feet, and planting cotton at the intersection of each furrow. In 
this system we dispense with the hoe, the most deadly enemy the cotton plant has 
to encounter, and use the plow altogether, ploughing both ways, and thinning by 
hand to a stand of two stalks per hill. Under this system of culture, properly 
carried out, I believe that an average production of three bales of cotton per acre is 
possible." 

From the use of agricultural fertilizers, from the influx of immigrants (from 
Europe and the North and West,) and from the spread of this " intensive system " — 
not forgeting the use of improved agricultural implements — from these causes 
Georgia can show the astounding progress she has made in a few years. She pro- 
duces now over twenty million dollars ($20,000,000) worth more of breadstuffs than 
in 1870. Under the old system of buying corn, pork, hay, flour, etc., all this motiey 
would have gone into the pockets of Northern and Western farmers. Twenty millions 
less per annum to the West for one Southern State, is a large straw to show which 
way the wind blows ! 

But to proceed to Georgia's progress in manufactures. My authority in these 
statistics is that very able and progressive mdustrial journal the Baltimore Manufac- 
turers' Record, and the Chronicle and Constituiionalist of Augusta, Ga. 

In growth of manufacturing production from 1870 to 1880 Georgia swelled from 
131,196,105 to $41,162,811, or $9,966,706— or over 30 per cent. There were in oper- 
ation in the year 1880 4,713 looms, 200,974 spindles, employing 6,678 hands and 
consuming 67,874 bales of cotton. Georgia advanced from fourth to third place in 
manufactured products. Unfortunately, the census of 1880 does not give the full 
details of manufacture. Georgia had 81 kinds of manufactures. The leading 
industries were flour mills, carpentering, blacksmithing, lumber, and cotton manu- 
facture. Georgia, in 1870, had among her larger specialties, beside these, leather 
and wheel manufacture, and, in 1880, iron foundries, brick, tar, turpentine, tin, 
crackers and candy on a large scale. Since 1880 Georgia has been doing a pheiiom- 
inally large business in lumber, cotton, fertilizers, and tar and turpentine. 

We will take up the three controlling staples of manufacture in all the Southern 
States — cotton, flour and lumber. Georgia leads overwhelmingly in cotton, doub- 
ling any single State. In 1880 she had 63 cotton factories, with a capital of $6,632,- 
142, making a production of $7,295,356. That gallant little South Carolina stood 
second, with a production of $2,895,769. The whole capital in the South in cotton 
manufacture was $17,782,197, of which Georgia alone had over one-third and made 
one-third of the product. North Carolina had five more establishments, but made 
over 50 per cent, less product. Since 1880 Georgia has increased her (;otton mill 
capital over six millions of dollars, and in this August, 1884, has $13,000,000 invested 
in cotton manufacture, and has nearly one-half of the Southern capital, and makes 
nearly one-half of the Southern manufactured products. Her products will go to 
$14,000,000 annually with 70 mills, 7,843 looms, 340,130 spindles, employing 10,000 
hands, and consuming 100,000 bales of cotton. From June 1, 1880, to January 1, 
1884, Georgia increased her looms from 4,713 to 7,843, or 3,130 ; her spindles Irom' 
200,974 to 340,130, or 139,156. The addition to her cotton mills was 22. 

The following is the increase in cotton milling in the South during this period 
from June, 1880, to January, 1884, taken from the Baltimore Manufacturers' Rec(yrd, 
and showing Georgia to continue her leadership : 



184 GEORGIA. 

INCREASE FROM JUNE i, 1880, TO JANUARY 1, 1884. 

No. of No. of No. of 

Mills. Spindles. Looms. 

Alabama 7 26,985 554 

Arkansas 2 4.285 2 

Florida i 1,102 

Georgia 22 139,156 3,130 

Kentucky 2 17,242 398 

Louisiana 5 33,57i 704 

Maryland 5 44,286 256 

Mississippi 3 22,956 416 

North Carolina 43 110,595 1,583 

South Carolina 17 98,200 1,614 

Tennessee 17 32,609 383 

Texas 4 9,626 94 

Virginia 6 21,700 508 

Total 134 562,433 9,651 

Taking the statistics of flour milling, the largest single subject of manufacture, 
running in the South to an aggregate of $67,769,465 of products, Georgia stands 
second — Virginia leading with $12,649,276 of products, and Georgia coming next 
with $11,232,029; yet beating Virginia in this, that with two millions less capital 
she made nearly as much product. Georgia had 1,132 flour mills, working $3,103,- 
918 capital, and producing $11,232,029 of products. Georgia had the honor of 
producing one-sixth of the whole flour manufacture of the South. I think the 
thoughtful statistician will agree that some day in the early future we shall not only 
do a large business in supplying "early flour" for the North and West, but that the 
South will monopolize the flour trade of the vast country south of us. Here is a 
tempting field for disquisition. 

Coming now to lumber, we find that the lumber production of the South ran 
in 1880 to $36, 323,248, and in this powerful industry, as in cotton manufacture, 
Georgia stood first, leading the section. She had 655 lumber mills, being exceeded 
in this respect of number by Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Kentucky ; 
but Georgia had larger capital and more products. Her capital ran to $3,101,452, 
and her products to $4,875,310, while Virginia, Tennessee and Kentucky had about 
two millions of capital each, and did run to over three and a half millions of pro- 
duct. Since 1880 Georgia has increased her capital in lumber mills three millions 
and her productions in proportion. 

The lumber products in the South in 1880wereas follows : 

Est. Capital. Products. 

Alabama 354 $1, 545,655 $2,640,634 

Florida 135 2,219,550 3,060,291 

Georgia 655 3,101,452 4,875,310 

Kentucky 668 2,229,558 4,064,360 

Louisiana 174 803,950 1,764,640 

Mississippi 295 922,955 1,920,355 

North Carolina 774 1,743,217 2,682,795 

South Carolina 420 1,056,265 2,031,507 

Tennessee 755 1,004,503 3,744,905 

Texas. 317 1,660,952 3,773,449 

Virginia 907 2,122,925 3,434,163 

West Virginia 469 1,668,920 2,431,857 

5,923 $20,079,902 1136,424,266 

Georgia's capital in lumber is to-day over $6,000,000, while the lumber pro- 
duction will exceed $7,000,000. "We thus see that in the leading three manufac- 
turing industries of the South, Georgia is indeed the Empire State, and in them is 
distancing her sisters. 

In looking at the county manufactures of 1870, we see as follows : 

Counties. Capital. Products. 

1. Chatham 1:1,148,075 12,805,771 

2. Richmond 1,315,145 2,614,405 

3. Fulton 434,560 2,000,995 

4. Muscogee 1,889,770 1,856,600 

5. Bibb 805,704 1,497,301 

6. Floyd 343,030 1,050,620 

7. Clarke 501,325 850,720 

8. Cobb 535.400 846,220 

9. Glynn 116,500 655,070 

10. Taylor 76,740 632,585 



GEORGIA. 185 

These were the leading ten manufacturing counties in 1870. In 1880 the ten 
leading counties were as Ibllow^s : 

Counties. 

1. Fulton 

2. Richmond 2,402,275 

3. Chatham 1,1 76,970 

4. Muscogee 



5. Bibb. 

6. Cobb 

7. Floyd . . . . 

8. Glynn .. .. 

9. Clarke . . . 
10. Mcintosh 



Capital. 


Products. 


52.682,131 


^5,125,826 


2,402,275 


3,490,780 


1,176,970 


3,483,866 


2,456,374 


3,019,300 


657,800 


1,724,125 


537,133 


1,383,322 


512,005 


1,104,376 


868,000 


755,785 


568,400 


629,933 


171,750 


740,700 



The contest is now between Richmond and Fulton. We thus see the changes 
in ten years. Fulton displaced Chatham and Richmond, and Richmond passed 
Chatham ; Floyd has been left by Cobb and gone ahead of Clarke ; Glynn went up 
one, takmg Cobb's place, and Clarke fell back to Glynn's old place. 

The Industries thus ran in 1880 : 



Agricultural Implements. 

Bakery 

Brick 

Wagons 

Confectionery , 

Cotton 

Flour 

Leather 

Iron 

Foundry 

Lumber 

Printing 

Rice 

Sash, &c 

Meat Packing * 

Tar, &c 

Tin 

Others , 



Est. 


Products. 


Capital, 


20 


*6oi,935 


$200,124 


26 


464,162 


118,450 


76 


409,025 


212,600 


59 


552,581 


275,300 


14 


335,335 


130,700 


44 


6,513,490 


6,527,557 


,132 


9,793,898 


3,576,301 


173 


619,957 


203,450 


14 


990,850 


1,135,900 


39 


1,299,491 


916,510 


668 


5,246,510 


3,223,452 


21 


579,054 


506,800 


9 


1,488,769 


263,000 


14 


366,000 


760,500 


9 


309,093 


25,700 


84 


1,445,739 


513,885 


56 


329,624 


155,350 


t,i35 


5.054,445 


2,576,671 



3,593 $36,3-'9,958 $21,322250 

It is not possible to give the full increase of the manufactures in Georgia since 
1880, but we can approximate it. Let us take the three counties with leading cities. 
The manufacturing capital has grown from 1880 to 1883 as follows : 

1880. 1883. Increase. 

Fulton $2,468,456 $5,971,130 $3,502,674 

Richmond 2,402.275 5,402,275 3,000,000 

Columbus 2,456,371 5,364.109 2,907,7318 

Total increase $9,410,402 

We thus have in three counties a grow^th of manufacturing capital of $9,410,403. 
The Baltimore ManufactureH Record gave the enlargement of capital in the whole 
State of Georgia in the six months from January 1, 1883, to June 30, 1884. as 
$3,759,000. Taking those facts as a basis of calculation, we may reasonably esti- 
mate as follows, as to manufacturing capital : 

Increase, Fulton, Richmond and Muscogee, 1880 to 1884 $9,410,402 

Increase in rest of State to 1884 5,000,000 

Increase in State. January to July, 1884 . , 3,759>ooo 

Increase since 1880 $1 8,169,402 

Manufacturing capital in 1880 36,399,958 

Present manufacturing capital $ 54.569,360 

Increase, in less than five years, 50 per cent. 

The following compilation, by James M. Swank, Esq., the eminent authority 
on such topics, shows Georgia's progress : 

BITUMINOUS COAL AND COKE IN NET TONS. 

1872, ; 1873, : 1874,5,516; 1875, 12,685; 1876, 10,018: 1877. 9,194; 

1878,13,860; 1879,16,240; 1880,20,044; 1881,24,000; 1882,26,875. 



* Here is another field in which the South is bound, some day, to become a great competitor with 
the West. Twice as much meat can be put on a hog South, with clover, as at the West. The land is 
cheaper, ice is home-made and cheap. Already there is one pork-packing establishment started in 
Arkansas. 



I 



186 



GEORGIA. 



Her production of charcoal pig-iron for the same time is, in net tons, as follows : 

1872, 2,945; 1873, 7,501; 1874, 4,270: 1875, 3,823; 1876, 500; 1877, 4,029; 

1878, 2,503; 1879, 4-^33; 1880, 7,277; 1881, 13,404; 1882,15,565. 

Still more impressive is her progress in the production of all kinds of pig-iron, 

as follows : Net tons — 

1872,2,945; 1873,7,501,,; 1874,9,786; 1875, 16,508: 1876,10,518; 1877,13,223; 
1878,16,363; 1879, 20,373; 1880, 27,321; 1881, 37,404; 1882,42,440. 

A cognate topic to the consideration of the manufactories of this State is a view 
of her water-powers. Below I give a table of some of the water-powers of the 
State, premising that many and very important ones are omitted, particularly some 
tliat are utilized. These tables are from the Tenth Census of the United States, and 
the branch of 



STATISTICS OF POWER AND MACHINERY EMPLOYED IN 

MANUFACTURES, 

Collected by George F. Swain, S. B., Instructor of Civil Engineering in the Massa- 
chusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. The following will assist the 
reader to a better understanding of the tables — an explanation by the author of 
the tables : 

" In describing the separate water-powers I have therefore given four estimates. 
For convenience of reference, I will recapitulate them here, noting briefly their 
exact meaning : 

1. Absolute Minimum can be depended upon always^ and with no storage at all. 
Large waste all the time, except for a few days at a time in intervals of several years. 

2. Minimum Low-Season ilow^ with no storage, can be depended upon at all 
times, except for a short time in some dry seasons — perhaps for a few days m the 
dry season of each year. With small storage, can be depended upon all the time. 

3. Mean Flow in Very Dry Years — Maximum amount permanently available with 
with storage. — Storage capacity is already discussed. With larger storage a greater 
amount could perhaps be utilized for several years in succession, but not perma- 
nently. 

4. Low-Season Flow m Ordinary Dry Years, without storage, can be depended 
upon generally, except in the low season of dry years, when the supply will be de- 
ficient for perhaps several weeks. In very dry years, when the supply will be 
deficient for a longer time, and in ordinary years, when the supply may be deficient 
for a few days at a time, can be rendered permanently available by storage. The 
lou)'.<<eason flow of ordinary years can be depended upon less than the above, but 
generally for nine months of every year." 

TABLE OF POWER AT ANTHONVS SHOALS, BROAD RIVER. 



State rip Flow. 



Minimum 

Minimum low season 

Maximum, with storage. 
Low seasc)n, dry years.. 



Drainage 
Area. 



Fall. 



Sq. miles. 

1,467 
) 



Flow per 
Second. 



Horse-Powek Avail- 
able — Gross. 



Cubic feet. 

( 370 

j 528 

( 1,450 
^ 600 



I foot fall. 

42 

60 

165 

68 



j 40 feet fall. 

1,680 

2,400 

6,600 

2,720 



TABLE OF POWER ON HATTONS' SHOALS, TUGALOO RIVER. 



Minimum 

Minimum low season . . . 
Maximum, with storage. 
Low season, dry years . . 



845 



39 



211 


24 


255 


29 


925 


105 


290 


33 



936 

1,131 

4,095 
1,287 



GEORGIA. 



187 




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GEORGIA. 




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Gage's shoal 

Humber's mill 

Pierson's mill 

Grist-mill 

Grist-mill 

Old Factory 


2 

n 
pi 




M 






OJ to 
O oi 


Distance from 

Milledgeville. 


10 








On On 0\ 
<-n 


Drainage Area. 




o o o j Spring. 


pi 
5" 


to M K> M to K) K) 


Summer. 


^ NO NO NO NO NO nO 


Autumn. 


OJOJOJOJOJWW ^^ inicr. 


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4>. ^ 4^ 4>. -t' -t^ 4>- 


Year. 


00 OOOJ CT,^ 3 3 

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oi 00 — — 


Height. 


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Length. 
















Minimum, 


X 
o 
-1 

n 

% 
n 

> 

< 

1 

1 

o 

o 
















Minimum 
low season. 
















Maximum, 
with stor- 
age. 














1 
Low season, 
dry years. 






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<Ji (ji 


oi 


Horse-pow- 
er — Net. 


p. 


M 9^ 

P pOW OONO 
O en 


Fall. 




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Per cent, of Mini- 
mum utilized. 





















GEORGIA. 

TABLE OF POWER AT AUGUSTA, GEORGIA. 



189 



State of Flow. 



Minimum 

Minimum low season 

Maximum, with storage. . . 
Low season dry years 



Drainage] 
Area. I 



Fall. 



Sq. miles. 
\ 6,830 



Feet. 
33 to 40+ 



Flow per 
Second. 



Cubic feet 
, 1,700 
J 2,100 
"j 6,000 
2,400 



Horse-Power Available — Gross. 



I foot fall. 
103.2 

238-7 
681.8 
272.7 



33 ft. fall, 

6,375 

7,877 

22,500 

9,000 



40 ft. fall. 

7,728 

9,548 

27,272 

10,908 



50 ft. fall. 

9,660 

",935 

34,090 

13,635 



ESTIMATE OF POWER AT TROTTER'S SHOALS. 



State of Flc 



Minimum 

Minimum low season 

Maximum, with storage. 
Low season, dry years. . 



Drainage 
Area 



Sq. miles. 
2,664 



Fall. 



Feet. 
74.88 



Rainfall. 



In. In. 

15 I 14 



In. 



In. 
16 



Flow per 
Second. 



Cubic feet 
670 
950 
2,550 
1,075 



Horse-Power 
Available — Gross. 



I foot fall. 

76.1 

108.0 

290.0 

122.2 



75 ft. fall. 

5,700 

8,100 

21,750 

9.165 



In order to facilitate my researches, and to give me the latest information, I 
sent out a great many circular letters making many inquiries. Among others I sent 
one to each of the Governors of the Southern States. Among the answers received 
was the following from His Excellency Henry D. McDaniel, Governor of Georgia, 
who could find some inclination and time from the engrossing cares of State to 
show his appreciation of a work which aims to build up his State in common 
with others South. 

STATE OF GEORGIA, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

,_ ^ Atlanta, September 26th, 1884. 

M. B. Hillyakd, Esq. 

Dear Sir : Governor McDaniel, upon the receipt of your letter and circular, 
transmitted them to this Department with a request that they should have iuumdkite 
attention. By a careful reading of the circular you will perceive that many ques- 
tions embraced in its scope would require the close and conscientious labor of days 
to answer with critical exactness. When it is known that this Department is not 
only hard pressed with its current work, but overwhelmed, any lack of such critical 
exactness, we trust, may be excused, if not overlooked. We were compelled to sus- 
pend all work properly belonging to our offices and give attention to your inquiry, 
and by dividing them out between three of our staff, we have been able to accom- 
plish what we send. Very respectfully, your obt. serv't, 

T. C. Howard, Clerk Agr. Dcpt. 

The work of answering these questions was parceled out to various gentlemen. 
This explains the strange succession of questions, I give them as they come, omit- 
ting some answers more fully covered by my own work : 

The Principal Streams are the Savannah, Chattahoochee, and the Altiimaha 
with its three tributaries Ogeechee, Oconee and Ocmulgee, in Southern Georgia, 
and the Coosa,witli its tributaries the Etowah and Oostanaula, in Northwest Georgia. 

Leading Water-Pmcers.—F'me. water-powers exist on all the principal streams 
of Northern and Middle Georgia and in many places in Southern Georgia. Among 
the most important water-powers of the larger streams is that of the Savannah river 
at Augusta and the Chattahoochee at Columbus. The Oconee, Ocmulgee and Flint 
rivers, for many miles about the lower limits of the metamorphic formation of the 



190 OEOROIA. 

State, offer fine water-powers. The Etowah, and many of the smaller streams of 
North Georgia run in a succession of rapids for almost their extent, and afford fine 
powers that at present are not utilized to any great extent. The water-powers of 
small streams with high heads, for this State, would make a long list. 

Tlie Principal Mining Bidustries, &c. — The most extensive mining operations 
carried on in the State are for gold, iron, coal, and pyrites for sulphuric acid. Gold 
is found and worked in many counties of Northern and Middle Georgia. Marbles 
are found in inexhaustible quantities and of the finest qualities in many counties of 
Northern Georgia. White statuary and variegated marbles are found in Cherokee, 
Polk, Pickens and Fannin counties. Variegated marbles, varying from red and 
black to nearly white, occur in nearly all of the northwest counties of the State. 
Kaolin is found in Paulding, Cobb, Cherokee, Fannin, Gilmer, Carroll, Fulton, and, 
in fact, nearly all of the counties of the middle and northeastern part of the State, 
and in many places of fine quality and in great quantity. 

Sand for Glass. — Sand suitable for this purpose is found in Gordon and Whit- 
field counties. 

Lime. — There are many lime-kilns in North Georgia that supply local demands 
for lime. The Howard Cement Works, located at Cement, near Kingston, in Bartow 
county, prepare lime and hydraulic cement for market. This, and Ladd's limekiln 
at Cartersville, and Gray's lime-kiln at Graysville, in Catoosa county, are the prin- 
cipal works of this kind in the State. Lime exists in the greatest abundance in ten 
counties of Northwest Georgia and some portions of Southern Georgia. 

Bituminous Coal is found in Dade, Walker and Chattooga counties. It has 
been mined extensively at Cole City in Dade county, and to some extent at various 
outcrops in Walker and Chattooga for blacksmithing purposes only. The coal 
measures cover an area altogether, in the three counties named, of about 200 square 
miles. 

Coke is prepared at Cole City, in Dade county. The markets are Rising Fawn, 
Dade county, at the iron works in Bartow and Polk counties, and in Chattanooga, 
Tennessee. 

Iron is found in all sections of the State. Red fbssiliferous iron ore is found 
in Dade, Walker, Chattooga, Catoosa, Whitfield, Gordon and Floyd. The outcrop 
of this ore amounts in linear extent probably to 200 miles, and underlies an exten- 
sive area. The beds vary from one to fifteen feet in thickness. 

Limonite is found in nearly every county of North Georgia, and in vast 
quantities. 

Magnetic and Specular Ores are found in Carroll, Bartow, Gilmer, Cherokee, 
Paulding, Habersham, and in many other counties of the State. 

Gopyper is found in Fannin, Paulding, Carroll and Cherokee counties. 

Fir Ore has not been found in quantities sufficient to mine. 

Gold is found in Lumpkin, White, Hall, Habersham, Lincoln, Dawson, Carroll, 
Paulding, Cobb, Cherokee, Pickens, Troup, Gilmer, Fannin, Rabun, Union and 
Townes counties, and in fact in nearly all the counties of Northeast Georgia and 
Middle Georgia. The most extensive mining for gold is in Lumpkin county. 

Galena — Li Hall, Lincoln, Habersham. Murray, Fannin, Catoosa, Floyd and 
Bartow. 

ILdloysite — In Dade, Whitfield and Chattooga counties. 

Gypsum — In Chattooga county. 

21ie Truck Farmers meet in convention, and, in concert with the railroads, agree 
upon a tariff" of rates to the limits of the State. Roads out of the State have made 
trouble and refuse such rates as would encourage the business of truck-raising. The 
absolute necessity for better and supportmg terms will compel a naore liberal policy 
•on the part of connecting roads. The business is of recent date, only two or three 



GEORGIA. 191 

years, and must attract great attention from railroad and transportation companies. 
The prices at the opening of the market for fruits and vegetables rule high, peaches 
Teaching New York and Philadelphia by the first week in June bring from $8 to 
^16 per crate of three pecks. Asparagus, spring head cabbage, tomatoes, Irish 
potatoes, snap beans sent forward early in the season, say by 10th of May, bring 
most satisfactory prices. The Alexander peach and LeConte pear are the most 
remunerative of our fruits for first shipments. Early water and musk melons 
of best quality are shipped both by sea and by rail, and when rates of carriage 
are fair and reasonable, the business pays well. In one word, in answer to the 
question, "What of the country for melons?" it may be claimed that Georgia is 
ahead of the whole world. 

Wages. — Average rate for field hands, without board, $10.75. Truck farmers 
pay, during gathering season, 60 cents for men and 50 cents for women. 

Woods. — From the mountains to the seaboard the finest hard woods can be 
found. On all the water courses and some mountains of the State the best 
hickory and white oak can be found. The lower Altamaha can show the finest 
white oak district in the world. We have only limited supplies of walnut and 
•cherry ; but our beech and ash are in great amount and very fine. 

Seminaries of Learning. — To Greorgia belongs the high honor of establishing 
"the first, 'oery Jir'st, female college in the world. This, the Wesleyan Female 
i^ollege, has an endowment of $300,000, and a reputation throughout the United 
States. Besides, there are numerous other institutions, of great merit, for 
females. Then we have male colleges : State University, at Athens, endow- 
ment $500,000 ; North Georgia Agricultural College, at Dahlonega ; Mercer 
University, at Macon ; Emory College, at Oxford ; Pio Nino College, at Macon, 
and Atlanta University, for blacks, with annual contribution from State treasury 
of $8,000. 

Fish. — Fresh- water fish cannot be said to be abundant in any waters in 
Oeorgia, north of Macon, the central part of the State. In the streams and 
lakes of South Georgia perch, black bass, suckers and catfish are plentiful. 
But as you ascend and get into the red clay lands the streams become so thick 
and muddy that they are, to a great extent, depleted of all scale fish. In the 
clear mountain streams we have the true speckled trout. Fish culture is greatly 
on the increase, and carp are widely scattered over the State and are giving 
great satisfaction wherever proper care has been bestowed upon them. In our 
salt waters fish abound and of the very best sorts. The first and best shad of 
the known world Georgia claims. Her Ogeechee, Altamaha and Savannah shad 
are by all odds the best in the markets of the United States. Then we have 
mullet, sheephead, trout, drum, black fish, whiting — in such abundance as to 
make our fisheries valuable in a commercial point of view. 

Is the Use of Labor -samng Machinei^ on the Farm Becoming General f — It cannot 
be said that it is, but many of our leading minds engaged in agriculture in 
Georgia are setting the example, and tlie diffusion oftlie idea is, indeed, very gen- 
eral. The lack of means, and not the want of an intelligent appreciation of 
such machinery, is in the way of our people. The desolations of the war, and 
the miserable short-sighted policy of manufacturers' rings, which keep up ex- 
travagant and extortionate prices, have been our trouble. But we will, after a 
while, and a short while, be goaded into self protection on this head, as we have 
in the instances of spinning and weaving cotton — mining and making iron — and 
many other things. We are now making the cheapest, and, for their price, the 
best plows in the United States, and soon we will follow with the reaper and 
mower and thrasher, and steam engines for farm use. Nothing that we must 
do will we fail to do, and do better than any other people on earth. 



192 GEORGIA. 

Our whole mountain region of table lands, ranging from 1,800 to 3,000 feet 
above sea level, and from 600 to 2,000 feet above surrounding valleys, has at 
last been found to be, of all localities, the best for the consumptive. The 
waters, varying from pure granite to sulphur, alum, and chalybeate, make this 
region the exact spot to cure dyspeptics. 

Best Locality for Stock Ram?ig and Profits. — The pine-woods country, open 
and unenclosed for thousands of acres, offer the best and cheapest stock ranges 
in the Union. No snow storms or hard freezes. The grass is kept growing 
most of the year, and the residue of the turf available all the year. Here are 
the walks for large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep — as large in certain cases 
as 7,000 head. The profits of sheep husbandry, for all Georgia, is 63 per cent. 
Cattle raising in this section of the State, the home of the wire and Bermuda 
grass, must be very profitable, as the expense is at its minimum for such an 
industry. 

Progress in Silk Culture. — This industry is not new to us, Georgia having led 
all the States of the Union in its first introduction ; but the inducements are not 
strong for its prosecution. Factories are not sufficiently accessible, and the 
prices offered for cocoons have been simply ridiculous. We can raise silk, and 
easily, for the osage orange and all of the mulberries are easily availed of, and 
the climate is all that can be desired. But cotton and a thousand other things 
for which we have better rewards than silk raising, call off our industry and 
enterprise. 

W/tat of Evergreens and Floimrs ? We suppose the inquiry is for trees of 
native growth. We have the world-renowned Magnolia Granditiora wild in 
our swamps, in endless profusion. Then we have that beautiful evergreen P. 
Coronarius or mock orange, and the American olive. These are natives. Of 
course, we have the whole collection of exotic evergreens, and in perfection. 
Our wildwood flowers are innumerable, and some of them of rarer beauty by far 
than very many included in our floral collections and catalogues. 

Are tliere any Tile Factories ? Yes ; one in Bartow county, and clay for the 
manufacture of tile in abundance. 

Neio Industries and their Success. — We have wine making among new indus- 
tries, and promising well ; marble quarrying and polishing — helve factories — 
ice factories — plow factories — and many others, all doing well. 

Bo Insects Depredate Badly, if so. What ? Have you the Colorado Beetle .?* — We 
do not have the Colorado beetle, but we do have the curculio (the cotton and cab- 
bage worm), the turnip flea, and many other less notorious and hurtful insect 
marauders. The grandest triumph over such pests that has been achieved in 
our day is the control we have acquired over the giant insect enemy the cotton 
worm. This pest that some years destroy thirty millions of wealth we can now 
squelch. 

Effects of tlie Lien Laic. — In a large number of cases the facility with which 
farmers of small means may purchase supplies on credit, which should be pro- 
duced at home — under the operation of the lien laws — has tended to encourage 
speculative farming, relying on the West for bacon, flour, corn, etc. The coun- 
ties are not generally in debt beyond the amount of one year's taxes. They are 
prohibited from issuing bonds or incurring extraordinary expense, or from 
levying more than a specific rate on the general State tax, without special 
authority from the Legislature. The rate is four-tenths of one per cent, for 
State purposes, and not more than an equal amount for county purposes, except 



* Dorypho->-a decemlineata. The D. yuncla is found, and may deceive the superficial observer. 



GEOBGIA. 193 

as before excepted. Farmers, as a rule, are more or less in debt,* but the 
amount is annually decreasing. Tlie legal rate of interest, where no rate is 
specified, is 7 per cent, simple ; but parties may agree on 8. Bank rates vary 
from 8 per cent, per annum, to regular and approved customers, to 1 per cent, 
per month. 

Each head of a family, or guardian, or trustee of a family of minor children, 
or every aged or infirm person, or person having the care and support of depen- 
dent females of any age, who is not the head of a family, is entitled to an 
exemption of realty or personalty, or both, to the value of $600. He shall have 
power to waive or renounce his right, in writing, except as to wearing apparel, 
and not exceeding $300 worth of household and kitchen furniture. 

The general law of the State requires all crop owners to protect their prem- 
ises from trespasses by stock which are permitted to run at large. But a gen- 
eral local-option law is also in force which permits the qualified voters of any 
county or militia district to determine by an election (which may not occur 
oftener than once every year,) whether they will adopt the "stock law" or ad- 
here to the "fence law." The "stock law," if adopted, requires owners of stock 
to keep them within their own enclosures. About one-fourth of the counties in 
the State have adopted the "stock law," and the operation has been universally 
satisfactory. 

All property of wife, at time of marriage, real or personal, or choses in 
action, shall be and remain the separate property of the wife ; and all property 
given to or inherited, or acquired by the wife during coverture, shall vest in 
and belong to the wife, and shall not be liable for the debts or defaults of the 
husband. She may, without consent of her husband, devise such separate 
property by will. 

The general law of the State authorizes the granting of licenses to retail 
intoxicating liquors, by the ordinances of the several counties and city author- 
ities of cities, upon the payment of specified license fees, and approval by the 
officer granting (he may withhold license in his discretion,) of the character of 
the applicant. Upon granting license, the applicant must give bond and surety 
in the sum of $500, to keep an orderly house and to abide by the oath which 
he must take, that he "will not, during next twelve months, sell, barter, give 
or furnish liquors to any minor, either white or colored, without consent of his 
or her parents or guardian." A large majority of the counties have availed 
themselves of enabling legislative acts to vote upon and adopt the local law 
prohibiting the sale of intoxicating spirits within their limits. The general 
laws and the local -option laws are quite generally and faithfully observed, and 
violations incur the ban of public opinion and prompt judicial punishment. 

BAILROADS. 

CeMrid Railroad of Georgia. — Main line : Savannah to Atlanta, 294 miles ; 
Macon J,d Eufaula, 140 miles ; Fort Valley to Columbus, 71 miles ; Fort Valley 
to Perrpl'll miles ; Cuthbert to Fort Gaines, 32 miles ; Smithville to Albany, 20 
miles ; Albany to Arlington, 37 miles ; Milton to Augusta, 53 miles ; Gordon to 
Eatonton, 40 miles ; Griffin to Carrollton, 60 miles ; Barnsville, to Thomaston, 
16 ; total, 764 miles. 

Western and Atlantic Railroad (belongs to the State). — Atlanta to Chatta- 
nooga, 138 miles. 

Georgia Railroad (under lease to President of Central Railroad). — Augusta to 
Atlanta, 170 miles ; Union Point to Athens, 39 miles ; Barnett to Washington, 
18 miles ; Camak to Macon, 74 miles ; total, 301. 



* This is the case very generally. It opens the way for long loans at a good rate of interest. The 
indebtedness is to the merchant commonly. 



194 GEORGIA. 

Richmond and Danmlle. — Main line (in Georgia) : Atlanta to Tugaloo River, 
100 miles ; Athens to Clarksville, 60 miles ; Toccoa to Elberton and Hartwell, 
80 miles ; Gainesville to Social Circle, 60 miles ; branch to Jefferson, 10 miles ; 
to Roswell, 10 miles ; to Lawrenceville, 10 miles ; total, 330 miles. 

Marietta and North Georgia Railroad. — Completed to Ellijay, 75 miles. 

East Tennessee, Virginia and Georgia Railroad. — Main line from Cohutta via 
Rome and Atlanta : Macon to Brunswick, 453 miles ; from Rome to Prior's Sta- 
tion, 40 miles ; total, 492 miles. 

Savannah, Florida and Western Railroad. — Main Line : Savannah to Chatta- 
hoochee, 258 miles ; Waycross to State line, 40 miles ; Thomasville to Albany, 
58 miles ; total, 356 miles. 

Atlanta and West Point Railroad. — Atlanta to West Point, 87 miles. 

Brumicick andWestern Railroad. — Brunswick to Albany, 172 miles. 

Columbus and Rome Railroad (Narrow Gauge). — Columbus to Chipley, and 
extending, 30 miles. 

East and West Railroad of Alabama. — Cartersville to Cedar Town (narrow 
gauge), 35 miles. 

Georgia Pacific. — Atlanta to Talapoosa, 70 miles. 

Rome Railroad. — Kingston to Rome, 20 miles. Total miles of railroad in the 
State, 2,870. 

In Process of Construction. — Buena Vista Railroad, Buena Vista to Anderson, 
36 miles ; Americus and Lumpkin, Americus to Lumpkin, 36 miles ; Richmond 
and Knoxville, Augusta to Elberton, 70 miles. 

Average Mean Summer and Winter Temperatures of some localities for 10 

years : Summer. Winter. Summer. Winter 



Atlanta 77.5 degrees. 45.2 degrees 

Rome 78.0 " 44.8 

Augusta 79.8 " 48.9 

Macon 80.7 " 51.3 

Americus 81.3 " 53.9 

Average Annual Rainfall — 



Brunswick 81.5 degrees. 55.5 degrees. 

Rabun Gap 71.7 " 41.0 " 

Gainesville... 76.7 " 45.4 " 

La Grange. 80.2 " 48.0 " 



Brunswick 48 inches. 

Rabun Gap 72 " 

Gainesville 55 " 

La Grange 49 " 



Atlanta 49 inches. 

Rome 47 " 

Augusta 43 " 

Macon 45 " 

Americus 47 " 

First frost from October 20 to November 20 ; latest Spring frost from April 
1 to April 20. First ice November 1 to 10 ; last from February 15 to March 15. 

Prices of Land. — Middle and North Georgia, $5 to $20 per acre ; wild, unim- 
proved lands, much less. Sheep-raising lands— for fine short wools. Southern 
Georgia— 50 cts. to $2.50 per acre ; for long wools and mutton— Middle and 
Northern Georgia — $5 to 20. 

Style of Renting. — Share system. 

Best Locations for Various Fruits. — Across middle of State and Southwest 
Georgia for pears, peaches, plums ; North Georgia for apples, pears, small 
fruits, etc. (See White's Gardening for South.) 

Character of Waters. — Various. Generally free and soft in Middle and 
Northeast ; hard in Northwest and Southern. Abundant. Wells from 25 to 50 
(rarely more) feet deep. Temperature, 55° in northern to 65° in southern por- 
tions of State. Artesian wells, in southern half of State, afford abundant sup- 
ply of excellent water, often medicinal, and greatly mitigating complaints 
dependent upon hard water. 

Mineral Springs.— ^wX^Awlt (warm and normal), chalybeate, etc., in several 
places. Chalybeate very common. 

Tobacco. — Not much grown, though climate and soil well suited. 



FLORIDA. 



I approach the topic of this State with a certain shrinking, realizing the 
impossibility of pleasing both or either of two large classes of people. One class 
will revolt at any due enthusiasm. They care not how much praise one bestows 
on corn and hogs, but flowers and oranges must pass with frigid mention. Skunk 
cabbage they do not object to, but a choice bouquet they have no use for. The 
other class will insist that you shall paint Florida in— 

"The light that never was on land or sea;" 

that he who shall choose that land for a home will be— 

"A happy soul, who, all the way 
To heaven, hath a summer's day;" 

that " every prospect pleases," and each day is '' a bridal of the earth and sky." 

Now, this latter class err on the side of beauty, an exalted enthusiasm, and in 
the direction of right and truth. It will not do to sneer at this and call it over- 
done, the hysterics of a?stheticism, sublimated affectation, etc. The love of moun- 
tains and flowers, of balmy climes, is as practical, as true as love ofbelUs lettres, of 
the " fair humanities," of painting, of sculpture, or even of corn and beef and pork. 
One cannot write soberly of some, and I think the best, aspects of Florida. The 
pulses refuse to be equable, and the pen self-contained. One must feel— 

" The exulting sense, the pulse's mad'ning play." 

The name is like an elixir, and the imagination is at once plumed ^vith it. Nor 
is this responsiveness without its uses, aside from its delights. It is a sort of 
Arethusa, or a spring of nepenthe, where the wounded sensibilities may find a 
lenitive ; where the " fitful fever " of life may be soothed ; where the bondage of 
routine may be broken; where the dull heart may be gladdened; where a refuge 
may be found from "weary, carping care;" where we may enjoy the "divme, 
enchanting ravishment " of nature, and the soft witchery of her lofty spell. And 
why should not Florida be painted in brilliant hues? If, in describing the polar 
regions, one should have no glow of language, no hint of flower nor fragrance, 
because it is fitness, why should not one speak of orange groves, of a— 

"Land of delicious lights and floating shades" 

as a fact ? Ought an Italian sunset to be limned in the cold, sombre, cheerless 
tints of an Arctic one? We should be ashamed to talk about potatoes, cabbages, 
corn and hogs in any but plain language; but should we rob flowers of their hues, 
because some reader is color-blind; or of their fragrance, because another has no 
sense of smell ? The flowers and fruits have their rights as well as potatoes, com 
and hogs; and dollars figure just as high and swell a bank account as well from 
oranges, pine apples, citrons, lemons, etc., as from the former. 

I shall defer to three classes of people in treating of Florida, looking at it 
from the standpoints of utilitarianism, of health and of eesthetics. In all these 
aspects it has great uses and magnificent capabilities, and I regard each view as 
strictly practical. 



196 FLORIDA. 

There have been so many books, and so many thousands of magazine and 
newspaper articles, written in description of the soil, climate, etc., of Florida, 
that it is difficult to write anything new under these heads, and that portion of 
the following pages devoted to these subjects is largely a compilation. The. 
authorities quoted are Reports of the Tenth United States Census, and others as 
reliable and authentic. 

The population in 1880 was 269,493. The number of counties in 1880 was 
forty. The capital of the State is Tallahassee, in Leon County. The names of 
towns of not less than 4,000 population, according to last census, are : Jackson- 
ville, 7,650 ; Key West, 9,840 ; Pensacola, 6,845. All these are very important and 
growing towns. Pensacola is a great lumber port, and is distinguished for its 
harbor. Key West is celebrated for its immense business in manufacturing very 
superior cigars from Cuban tobacco. Jacksonville is too noted to require enumer- 
ation of its grounds of distinction. 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Florida, the southernmost State of the United States, lies between the paral- 
lels of 24° 30' and 31° north latitude, and the 80th and 88th meridians west from 
Greenwich. Its total gross area, as determined by the latest measurements, is 
58,680 square miles. The greater part of this area (about 35,000 square miles) is 
a peninsula about 350 miles long, with an average width of 100 miles, separating 
the waters of the Atlantic Ocean from those of the Gulf of Mexico. The rest of 
the State, knoAvn as Eastern, (from the Atlantic to the Suwanee River,) Middle, 
(from the Suwanee to the Apalachicola River,) and Western Florida, (from the 
Apalachicola to Perdido River,) nearly 24,000 square miles, is embraced in a strip 
320 miles long and about 75 miles wide, lying immediately south of the lines of 
Georgia and Alabama. Roughly speaking, about one-half the area of Eastern, 
Middle and Western Florida, and from one-fourth to one-third of the Peninsula, 
are uplands of various kinds ; the rest, lowlands, including the level flatlands near 
the coasts, the everglades, savannas, etc. 

ELEVATION ABOVE THE SEA. 

The upper half of what is known as Middle and Western Florida consists 
of uplands, which are entirely similar to the corresponding uplands of Georgia 
and Alabama. Some parts of these uplands are broken or hilly, and the elevation 
above the sea cannot be far from 300 feet. Toward the gulf and Atlantic there is 
a gradual slope, and within ten miles of the coast the deviation is scarcely more 
than ten feet above tide. From the Georgia line, in the vicinity of Okeefenokee 
Swamp, southward down the Peninsula, there is an elevated belt of land known, 
in part of its coarse at least, as Trail Ridge. This elevated land is known to 
extend as far south as Polk Country, and its height above the sea is between 200 
and 300 feet. Between this main ridge and the gulf there is another ridge, known 
as the Sand Hills, 120 feet and more in elevation. In Hernando County are high 
hummock lands of considerable elevation, and Mount Lee, near the head of 
Homosassa River, is said to be 214 feet high. The lower part of the State, from 
Polk County southward, is generally low, comparatively level, and with an 
elevation probably not greater than thirty or forty feet. The immediate coast in 
some localities has an elevation of fifteen feet. 

GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Limestone. — A very considerable portion of Florida is underlaid with lime- 
stone, and the peninsula is considered by eminent scientists to be much narrower 
than it once was, the limestone extending quite a distance into the gulf Some of 



FLORIDA. 197 

this rock — in Alachua County, for instance — contains as much as sixteen per cent, 
of phosphoric acid — an easy explanation of the heavy growth of live oak, water 
oak, Spanish oak and other hard woods. This rock is of a j^ellowish to white color, 
somewhat granular, and in disintegrating, breaks up into small, rounded, pebbly 
masses. Disseminated through the soil, it imparts to it a great degree of fertility. 
Along the gulf coast, especially from Wakulla County down to Hillsborough, there 
are frequent spots, sometimes quite extensive, wdiere the tertiary limestone lies near 
the surface, and its reaction upon the sand}^ soil brings about the modification 
known as gulf-hummock land. This land will yield a bale of lint (Sea Island) 
cotton to the acre in some localities ; the average, however, would probably be 
less. The growth is the usual hummock growth given above. The color of the 
soil in some localities in Wakulla county is light gray, nearly white, looking very 
much like white sand. In this place the limestone is a white, pulverulent mass, 
with shells. An analysis of marl shows that it contains over thirty per cent, of 
lime, and over twenty-four per cent, of carbonic acid. The intermingling of this 
substance with the sandy soils gives to this hummock its high degree of fertility. 

DRAmAGE. 

Rimrs. — The principal streams of Florida are the Apalachicola, the Suwanee, 
the St. Mary's, St. John's, Kissimmee and Indian rivers, the last named being 
merely an arm of the sea, running parallel with the eastern coast. The St. John's 
and the Kissimmee, in some parts of their courses, consist of a chain of lakes con- 
nected by the water courses, the former rising m the region surrounding the 
everglades, flowing northward, and the latter flowing southward toward the ever- 
glades, the two, in part of their courses, flowing approximately parallel to each 
other, but in opposite directions, and at no great distance (twenty to thirty miles) 
apart. 

Lakes. — In the number and variety of its lakes, Florida is distinguished 
among the States. These lakes vary in size from mere ponds to vast sheets of 
water, like Lake Okeechobee, which has an area of more than 500 square miles. 
In some instances they are apparently fed from underground sources and form 
the headwaters of streams; in otlier cases the streams flow through them, which 
thus appear as mere local widenings of the channels ; and in still other cases, lakes 
which receive the drainage of large areas by means of rivers have no visible out- 
let, the waters being removed by evaporation or by subterranean outlets. The 
waters of Lake Okeechobee are apparently generally connected with those of the 
Everglades, which are carried off to the sea by a number of channels. It is impos- 
sible to form an estimate of the number of lakes, large and small, with which the 
scenery of Florida is diversified; for in some parts of the State one may travel for 
da3"s at a time without being out of sight of these sheets of water. In those sec- 
tions where the lakes are most abundant, they receive the drainage over large 
areas, and the water courses are subterranean. The headwaters of most of the 
streams of Southern Florida are found in the Everglades; and Lake Okeechobee, 
which seems to be a merely open lagoon, receives the waters of at least one large 
stream, the Kissimmee River. 

Springs. — The country is well watered, not only by its larger and smaller 
rivers and lakes, but by innumerable creeks and springs. Springs of great volume 
are found in every portion of the State, some of such magnitude that they form 
navigable rivers from their source. Of such are the Blue Springs, in Jackson 
County, in the west; Wakulla Springs, in Wakulla County, in the middle; Silver 
Springs, m Marion County, in the east; the very large Blue Spring, on the St. 
John's, in 'Volusia County ; the Green Cove Spring, in Clay County, on the shore 
of the St. John's; also Clay Spring, in Orange County. Some of these are medici- 



198 FLORIDA. 

nal, white sulphur, iron, etc. Good water, so universally desired, is found easily 
at a depth of from eight to fifty feet, according to locality, generally from twelve 
to twenty feet, but through the country, the many lakes and springs and branches 
afford ample supply for house and farm purposes. An ordinary gas pipe of one 
and a-half or two inches in diameter, shod with a conical plug of iron, and per- 
forated for a distance of one or two feet above the plug, will, when driven into the 
ground to a depth of thirty to forty-five feet, afford a never failing flow of water, 
at all times cool and refreshing, slightly tinctured with the carbonate of iron and 
trace of sulphur. The flow is, in many cases, so strong that faucets are placed on 
the pipe from thirty inches to three feet above the ground in order to check it. 

SOIL. 

The soil in the greater portion of the State is a sandy loam, except in the hill 
lands and hummocks, where large portions of clay and alluvium are found. The 
so-called sand of Florida, however, is not the sharp, silicious sand of the ocean- 
washed beach, or the fine inorganic sand which forms the pine barrens of the 
North and West. Composed, in great part, of a mixture of humus, lime and loam, 
the surface sand of Florida has good fertilizing qualities. Florida lands are ordi- 
narily classified as pine lands, hummocks (lands covered with hard woods), and 
swamp lauds. The greater portion of the State is covered with pine — the pitch 
and yellow pine. The hummocks, high and low, are densely covered with hard 
wood, such as live oak, oak, magnolia, gum, hickory, etc. The swamp lands are 
more or less timbered with pine, cypress, cedar and soft woods. The first rate 
pine lands, so called, are generally elevated and rolling, covered with a dark vege- 
table mould or humus, several inches deep, resting on a chocolate-colored, sandy 
loam, mixed with pebble and lime ; under this, clay and soft limestone rock. These 
lands have a durable fertility, and are well adapted to the usual agricultural 
products and semi-tropical fruits. They are found to withstand drought well, 
and in rainy seasons growing crops are not affected, except favorably. They are 
healthy, the water is pure, and it costs little to prepare the soil for cultivation. It 
is noticeable that the early settlers selected these lands especially for residences 
and home farms, health, pure water, freedom from iusects, good soil for crops and 
fruit, and ease of cultivation. They produce well for years without fertilizing, 
but readily respond in increased products to fertilizers. The second rate pine 
lands, which are also timbered with pine, are more or less- high and rolling, are 
well watered, the surface soil is not deep, are underlaid with clay or limestone, 
and produce well for a few j-ears. Fertilized, they yield good crops of cotton, 
coin, cane and root crops; when properly cultivated, they are superior for semi- 
tropical fruits. Experienced growers have selected this class of land for orange 
groves. 

The Report of the Commissioner of Lands and Immigration for 1875, gives a 
very thorough and comprehensive description of the soils: 

" The bulk of the lands in the State are what is denominated pine lands, and 
are divided into first, second and third rate. The soil of the first rate pine laud 
rests upon a substratum of clay or marl, overtopped by a dark mould of decom- 
posed vegetable matter. This land is exceedingly fertile, producing splendid 
yields of the most exhausting crops for several years in succession without any 
need of fertilization. There are several large bodies of these lands scattered 
throughout the northern tier of counties and along the gulf coast. 

"The second class of pine lands are only a trifle less productive than those of 
the first class. Generally speaking, these lands are high and rolling, and are 
characterized by a heavy growth of pitch and yellow pine timber. They rest 
upon a basis similar to that of the first class, but the mould is lighter, and they 
show signs of exhaustion after a few years. A little fertilization, however, 
restores their vigor. 'Cow-penning' is the fiivorite mode of restoration, and 
treated in this manner, they will yield a bale of cotton of 300 pounds to the acre. 



FLORIDA. 199 

" The third class of pine lands are distinguished by being covered with a 
growth of saw-palmetto, black-jack, and a shrub called the 'gall-berry.' The 
presence of the latter is a certain test of poor soil. Another feature of this land 
is the presence of ' hard ' or ' slush ' pine, the roots of which are to be found run- 
ning very near the surface. These lands are not worthless, but can only be made 
to yield remuneratively after much labor and heavy fertilization. Sisal hemp can 
be grown very successfully on them, and with proper machinery to crush and 
prepare the fibre for market, their value would be equal to that of any other class 
of pine land. 

" There is another species of pine land called by the natives ' flatwoods.' 
About four feet from the surface of this land a stratum of what is called sand- 
rock is found. This is composed of common fine sand, and cemented by sulphate 
of iron and aluminum, and a subsoil thus formed is almost impenetrable to 
moisture. As a consequence it holds up all the rainfall, so that the land becomes 
packed, and is known to the natives as * sobbed land.' Such soil is of very inferior 
quality, and is scarcely fit for profitable agriculture. 

''But by far the finest lands in the State are known as 'swamp,' 'low bum- 
mock ' and ' high hummock ' lands. 

" The swamp lands are the richest in the State. They are formed entirely of 
humus, or decayed vegetable matter, of an extraordinary depth, and when ren- 
dered fit for cultivation by ditching, give evidence of an inexhaustible fertility. It 
has been demonstrated that these lands will yield four hogsheads of sugar to the 
acre — a most convincing proof of their value, especially when it is borne in mind 
that sugar-cane is one of the most exhausting crops known. Immense bodies of 
these lands are located in Central and Southern Florida. Drainage is necessary, 
however, to render the greater portion available for purposes of agriculture. 

"The lands denominated 'low hummock' rank next to the swamp lands in 
fertility. They are generally moist, and some ditching is required for successful 
cultivation. They will sustain a succession of the most exhausting crops for 
several years with as much apparent vigor as the swamp lands, but are not so 
durably rich, and need fertilization after some time. 

'' High hummocks are the most desirable lands in the State for purposes o*" 
agriculture. They are covered with a growth of live oak, hickory and magnolia, 
and the surface is, for the most part, high and gently undulating. The soil is 
exceedingly rich and will produce all the crops of the country in a highly remu- 
nerative degree. Their productiveness is apparent from the fact that three hogs- 
heads of sugar per acre have been made from them. The chief labor connected 
with their cultivation is the clearing. The timber is generally very heavy, and 
the cost of clearing is greater than that of any other quality of land in the State. 
Once cleared, however, they are free from pernicious \veeds and grasses, and but 
little labor is required in working them. These lands are very abundant. In 
Levy County alone there are perhaps over one hundred thousand acres of first 
class hummock land, while in Leon, Gadsden, Jefferson, Jackson, Marion and 
Alachua Counties they form the great bulk of the land, and can be purchased at 
from tw^o to ten dollars per acre." 

Large bodies of these lands have been sold since the above was written, 
Disston's purchase alone being 4,000,000 acres. 

The cost of clearing land depends on whether sparsely timbered or of thick 
growth ; whether pine, hummock or swamp land ; and also, whether the land is to 
be planted in orange groves or usual crops. It was formerly the custom to simply 
girdle the trees and remove the fallen timber. This was done quickly and cheaply, 
and crops put in the same season. 

To clear ordinary pine land, removing the timber will cost from S12 to $15 
per acre; hummock lands will cost more — from $15 to $30, according to the 
density and size of timber. 

For a new place, the Virginia rail fence is cheapest, as timber is on the spot 
and splits freely. There are saw mills throughout the State, so that boards and 
posts may be substituted. 

The new-comer, anxious to have a roof over his head and be ready to go to 
work, will hasten to build him a house. Now, here is room and range for any 
person to exercise his taste, talent, extravagance or economy. A comfortable log 
house for a moderate sized family can be built, say, for $50 ; a good frame build- 



SCO FLORIDA. 

ing, with four or five rooms, will cost from $200 to $800. Lumber of fair quality 
from $5 to $12 per l,0(iO feet, at mills. 

Any one moving bis family to a new State should have either money or pro- 
visions to last until he can raise crops. 

A homestead to the extent of 160 acres of land, or the half of one acre within 
the limits of any incorporated town or city, owned by the head of a family resid- 
ing in this State, together with $1,000 worth of personal property and the 
improvements on the real estate, are exempted from forced sale under any process 
of law, and the real estate shall not be alienable without the joint consent of hus- 
band and wife, when that relation exists; but no property shall be exempt from 
sale or from the payment of obligations contracted for the purchase of said 
premises or for the erection of improvements t4iereon, or for house, field, or other 
labor performed on the same. The exemption herein provided shall not extend 
to more improvements or buildings than the residence and business house of the 

owner. 

PRODUCTIONS. 

The lands of Florida produce nearly all the crops and fruits of the Middle, 
Northern and Southern States, and, in addition, a great variety of semi-tropical and 
tropical fruits and vegetables, and most of the best known and valuable medicinal 
and fibrous plants. The settler may turn his attention to almost any crop with 
equal hope of success. For instance, he may raise rye, corn, oats, rice, beans, peas, 
etc. ; or cotton, tobacco, sugar, indigo, sisal hemp, jute, etc, ; or Irish potatoes, 
sweet potatoes, yams, turnips, beets, cabbages, rutabagas, squashes, etc. ; or straw- 
berries, melons, tomatoes, cucumbers, etc. ; or go largely into fruits, as oranges, 
limes, lemons, peaches, figs, grapes, pawpaw, plums, etc. ; or if he elects to settle 
in tlie more southern portion of the State, he may include the cocoanut, pine- 
apple, banana, plantain, guava, etc., etc. Cassava, arrowroot and comptie are also 
receiving marked attention throughout Southern Florida, due to their astonishing 
yield per acre, and the large return realized by those engaged in their cultivation. 

All crops, whether of fruits or vegetables, mature so much earlier than further 
north, that the producers receive a threefold price as compared with other parts. of 
the United States. The raising of 

EARLY VEGETABLES 

for shipment to Northern markets is now, and always will be, extremely profit- 
able in Florida. This business, which began in a small way near Fernandina and 
Jacksonville a few years ago, has already assumed very extensive proportions, 
and will, in all time to come, prove a most important and profitable industry. 

In South Florida, tomatoes, cucumbers and beans thus far have been the lead- 
ing articles for shipment. The tomato has been the most profitable. In that 
section of the State the fall and winter months are best suited for vegetable grow- 
ing. Beans, peas, cucumbers, potatoes and cabbages can be grown at seasons 
which command for them monopolizing prices. Five, six and seven hundred 
dollars per acre have been realized, both from cabbages and tomatoes. Cucum- 
bers have paid as much to the area in tillage, to the early grower, as any vegetable 
on the list. The great drawback, thus far, to the early market gardeners, has been 
the want of ready and reliable transportation facilities. These, however, are rap- 
idly multiplying and extending. And the vegetable and fruit trade will soon be so 
immense in its proportion as to command for their use all the commercial facilities 
that human skill and industry can supply. The State seems likely soon to become 
one vast orchard for fruits and garden for vegetables. 

T?ie Sweet Potato comes nearer being a universal crop in Florida than any 
other the soil produces. It is easily propagated from the roots, sprouts and vine, 



I 



FLORIDA. 201 

and sometimes the seed, though the latter mo<Ie is rarely used. From its easy 
propagation and cultivation, its large yield, and the variety and excellence of the 
dishes prepared from it, it is one of the indispensable crops. In the southern 
counties, it may be planted at any season of the year, and generally is not taken 
from the ground until needed for use. 

The Irish Potato, or " White Potato," is accredited with being a native of 
Chili and Peru, and was introduced into North America by the Spaniards, from 
whence it was, in 1586, carried by Sir Walter Raleigh to England, and perhaps 
acquired its name of " Irish " from the extent to which it is grown in Ireland, and 
the excellence with which the Irish soil produces it. This tuber has, within the 
last few years, taken a very prominent place among the ve^ry profitable early crops 
in Florida. On the best class of lands, truckmen have been getting about an 
average of thirty barrels of first class shipping potatoes per acre, which, getting 
into the Eastern markets about the time the old crop is exhausted, have been net- 
ting, over cost of shipping and selling, about $4 per barrel, making, say, from $100 
to $120 per acre realized from land in a short period of generally one hundred 
days, and leaving the ground ready for some other crop by first of May. These 
figures have been very much exceeded in many localities. On the excellent farm 
lands of Middle Florida, some wonderful results have been attained. 

Strawberries are one of the prominent subjects of interest to the fruit growers 
and market gardeners. This delightful fruit, so eagerly sought after in every 
market, grows to great perfection throughout the State of Florida. The fruit 
comes into market too early to find competition from any other section, and 
Florida strawberries enjo}' a monopoly' in the Eastern seaboard markets for many 
wrecks during January, February and March. The production and shipment of 
the berries North is rapidly increasing, and has now assumed such proportions as 
to secure the provision by the transportation companies of suitable refrigerating 
cars for their proper preservation in transitu. 

Melons of every variety abound in Florida, are of the very finest quality, and 
in the cantaloupe and watermelon, furnish onh- an additional entry to the ship- 
ping list of the truckman, and are by no means one of the least profitable 
interests. 

Blackberries grow wild all over the State in great profusion. Some attention 
has been given in Middle Florida, where labor is abundant and cheap, to drying 
the berries for shipment. The dried fruit commands fourteen cents per pound, 
net, and is becoming the source of considerable revenue to those who have under- 
taken its preparation and shipment. 

There are in Florida manj^ plants from which starch may be obtained, but 
there are three from which its preparation is the leading use. These are the 
Arrowroot of Commerce, Coontie, or "Florida Arrowroot," and the Cassava. 
Arrowroot grows well on good land. It is not extensively grown for market, but 
frequently is grown and utilized for food purposes, as well as starch making. 
Coontie is indigenous to the southern counties, where is grows most luxuriantly. 
On the Miami River, in Dade County, parties have been engaged in manufac- 
turing starch from this plant for the Key West market. It is there sometimes 
appropriated to the uses of the table. Doubtless tillage would improve it in its 
useful properties, just as other plants have been thus improved and developed. 
Parties who have cultivated Cassava pronounce it to be a most excellent food 
crop for fattening hogs; that an acre of this crop will go further in feeding than 
an acre of potatoes. Like the potato, it may be propagated hj cuttings of the 
stems. From this plant is prepared the Tapioca of commerce. Recently this 
plant has been utilized in the production of glucose, which it is found to yield in 
such quantities as to make its manufacture a leading purpose. 



202 FLORIDA. 

Tobacco has been found, from the earhest settlement of Florida, to be well 
adapted to both the climate and soil, and has been at different periods and in 
different localities extensively produced. Several varieties of marked difference 
in character and quality are commonly cultivated. Experience has taught that 
Florida tobacco possesses a fineness and toughness of leaf that admirably suits it 
to the use of wrappers for cigars. Before the war, a wide reputation was estab- 
lished by the planters in the County of Gadsden for the production of what is 
termed the "Florida Speckled Leaf," which was pronounced the very best for 
wrappers grown anywhere, and commanded unusually high prices. The lands 
of that county were found to be peculiarly suited to its production. One thousand 
pounds was the average yield per acre, and several handsome fortunes were 
amassed by its culture. A highly flavored and fragrant article of tobacco is being 
extensively planted for home consumption in many portions of the State. This 
quite equals, in the excellence of its flavor, the Cuban weed ; is indeed grown from 
seed originally introduced from that island. What are known as shell hummocks 
in the County of Wakulla, in Middle Florida, and indeed in many other parts of 
the State, are most admirably suited to the production of this Cuba variety, and 
are just now attracting renewed attention for that purpose. 

Silk might easily be made a most profitable industry in Florida. The Morus 
MulticauUs and M. Alba both grow most luxuriantly. Cuttings of either laid hori- 
zontally in furrows and covered in early spring, put up a vigorous sprout at every 
joint, and grow in ten j^ears to be hedges of stout canes. These kept cut back, so 
as to stool and multiply the number of sprouts, and not allowed to grow into trees, 
and thus elude the reach, will, the third year and thereafter, furnish heavy crops 
of foliage for feeding the worms. In many places careful experiment with choice 
varieties of European, American and Asiatic varieties of worms have proven very 
satisfactory. 

Honey is rapidly becoming a staple product of Florida, whose climate and 
flora seem specially adapted to the propagation of bees. Even in the winter 
Qionths, in South Florida, there is a supply of flowers quite sufficient to support 
the hives. This permits heavier tolls to be made on them, as less honey must be 
left to feed during the winter. Bees work in South Florida all winter. 

TROPICAL AND SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS. 

First and most important is the Orange. The cultivation of the orange is dis- 
tinctively a Florida industry, and probably three-fourths of all who go to Florida 
have in view the possession of an orange grove. However extravagantly the sub- 
ject of orange growing has, in many instances, been treated by some writers, not 
always without selfish purposes in inducing sale and settlement of lands, there is 
no shadow of doubt as to the really sure and safe ground for the investment of 
thousands of dollars in making orange groves. 

One thousand dollars per acre per annum has time and again been realized 
from this business. Indeed, double that amount per acre has been frequently 
made ; and with proper culture and fertilization, where the latter is needed, $1,000 
per acre is an available crop. Like all excellent things, orange culture has many 
and serious obstacles to its successful accomplishment. Being a new business, 
there is not a great amount of experience to govern and direct the beginner. 
Almost as many different theories exist as to the most approved methods of cul- 
ture as there are men engaged in it. 

The natural enemies of the tree and fruit are numerous, and not very well 
understood. An entomologist, sent from the Bureau at Washington, reports 
having discovered no less than thirty-five different insects that are in a greater 
or less degree damaging to the orange. Judicious selection of locality, as well 



FLORIDA. 203 

as location for groves, are most important matters. The selection of stocks, 
buds, seeds, and the best methods of planting, protecting and cultivating, are all 
material factors of success. Frosts, droughts, gales and other casualities are to be 
considered, and time is largely of the essence of the undertaking. 

Orange growing, while it can, of course, be engaged in at a decided advan- 
tage by those who have means to conduct it on a cash basis, and be independent 
of support until such time as the grove is an assured success, does not, neverthe- 
less, present any insurmountable features to poor men — by which term I mean, in 
this instance, men without ready money, and dependent upon their own labor for 
a support. But for fear of misleading minds prone to overlooking the details 
when so dazzling a prospect is offered them of converting in a few years acres of 
$1.25 land into bonanzas yielding princely incomes, I caution them that there is a 
long, hungry gap between raw pine woods and groves of bearing orange trees. 
It takes many hard licks, plenty of pluck, assured health, good luck and favorable 
auspices ; to all of which, a large family, bad health, indolence, inexperience or 
accident are possible drawbacks. 

It has been urged that the profits of orange growing would directly attract so 
many to the business as to overstock the market and break it down, but a little 
reflection will dissipate such fears. Apples sell as readily now, and at as good 
prices, as they did forty years ago, and yet there are millions of acres suitable to 
growing apples where there are hundreds suitable to growing oranges, and there 
are millions of apples now on the market where there used to be one. If the 
apple market cannot be so overstocked as to break it down, much less can the 
market for oranges. The consumption of the orange within the United States is 
put down at 600,000,000 per annum. A little above 80,000,000 of that supply is 
furnished at home; the remainder, as shown at the custom houses, is made up of 
receipts from abroad. Florida furnishes about one-seventh of the supply, while 
foreign sources furnish the balance. The ease by which Florida can effectually 
occupy the market when its supply is sufficiently enlarged is shown in the fact 
that the foreign fruit is frequently sold in the market as "Florida" fruit, to pro- 
cure for it a more ready sale. Florida fruit is of a better quality and richer flavor, 
and the foreign article finds a market only because the home supply fails to meet 
the demand ; and this demand is increasing almost as rapidly as orange trees in 
Florida are multiplying. 

The natural increase of American population — that is, the number of births 
over the number of deaths, is only about one-third of the real increase. More 
than half a million people from foreign lands will arrive upon our shores during 
the present year with the intention of permanent residence among us. Then 
every railroad in the other American States, as well as every railroad and canal 
added in Florida, increases the facility and lessens the cost of putting this tropical 
fruit at every man's door. 

In making an orange grove, the judicious selection of the land is the first 
and most important point, for on this success in a great measure depends. Choose 
high dry hummock, or high rolling pine land that has natural drainage and a yel- 
lowish subsoil. Avoid low, flat palmetto or gallberry lands. Most of these are 
underlaid with hard-pan, or sandstone mixed with oxide of iron. The most 
favorable locations are on the southeast side of wide sheets of water or high 
lands, which are more generally free from frost. The cost of a five-acre grove 
at, say, five years from planting, at a liberal estimate where high pine land is 
chosen, will be about as given below. If hummock land is taken, the cost ox 
clearing will be more. The grov« will have begun to yield at the end of the 
period named. Rev. T. E. Moore, Fruit Cove, Florida, has published a good 
treatise on orange culture. 



204 FLORIDA. 

Cost of Gkove. 

Five acres of good land, variously estimated, depending on location. 

Cutting timber — clearing $ 75 00 

Fencing (post and board fence) and breaking up 75 00 

Three hundred trees, and setting out 200 00 

Manures, labor, cultivating, taxes, etc., for five years 500 00 

Total, less cost of land $850 00 

Such a grove -would readily sell now in Florida for $1,000 per acre. From 
and after five j-ears the annual growth of trees and increase of fruit is constant, 
and thereafter the grove will hold its vigor and fruit-producing qualities for a 
century or more. The orange is a hardy tree; will stan.l great extremes of rain 
and drought; it will show the effects of a single season's neglect, and quickly 
show a single season of care and attention. 

The general varieties of the orange are the sour, the sweet and the bitter- 
sweet. The sour and bitter-sweet are supposed to be indigenous, growing wild 
in the forests. The orange, as also all of the same famih', can be grown from the 
seed, grafting, budding and cuttings. All are rapid in grow^th, annual and abun- 
dant bearers, long-lived, easily cultivated, hardy, and not as subject to disease or 
destruction as most trees. Budded, the sweet orange will commence to bear the 
third year; the seedling in the sixth year, increasing each succeeding year; at 
fifteen to twenty 3'ears averaging at least 1,000 each. 

Besides the orange, other members of the citrus family, viz: the lemon, lime, 
citron, grape-fruit and shaddock, can be successfully grown in at least a large 
portion of the State. The lime and lemon will be al)out as widely used as the 
orange, though not so abundantly, and as not a tithmg of so many are engaged 
in growing them, they will, perhaps, be about as profitable. 

The GrcqK-fruit is only a larger and coarser variety of the orange. The 
shaddock is a yet larger fruit, measuring some ten or twelve inches in diameter. 

The Citron is a healthy, vigorous grower and prolific bearer, though less 
hardy than the lemon or orange. By a process as yet not understood in Florida, 
from this fruit is prepared, in the East, the citron of commci-ce, which art, when 
acquired here, will develop only another source of industry and revenue to 
the State. 

The Banana is one of the most popular of tropical productions. It is gener- 
ally relished from the first; but even this fruit requires a little practice to develop 
in full a palatable sense of its richness and delicacy. Moreover, it belongs to the 
lamily— the plantain, which is claimed to be the richest of all the fruits in nutri- 
tious matter. It has a number of varieties. The hardiest of these, and the one 
most widely scattered over the State, is the African. This variety needs to be 
quite ripe to be in its highest degree palatable. Most of the other varieties, as 
the French, Fig, Dwarf, Red, Cavendish, Lady-finger and Apple, are regarded as 
more delicate in their flavor. 

The Pineapple is largely an air plant, and in a suitable climate will do w^ell, 
even in a poor soil. Very fine pineapples have been grown as far north as Tampa, 
about 28° north latitude, and will do well up to 29°. On the islands betw^een Key 
West and the mainland it is a staple crop, as also in Dade County. Indeed, it 
may and will be grown profitabl}- anywhere south of 29° north. It is only await- 
ing convenient transportation. 

The Cocoanut ^ust at present is attracting great attention. There is a " boom" 
in its production in the counties of Monroe and Dade. There ai-e trees in pros- 
perous and prolific bearing at Fort Myers, near the northern boundary of Monroe 
County. With a little protection to the plant for the first several years during 
the coldest nights, it will do well as far north as the Manatee River. 



FLORIDA. 205 

TTie Bate-palm, from which is obtained the date of commerce, is a somewhat 
hardier plant than the cocoanut, and will do well, therefore, something further 
north. Date trees, and very old ones, are bearing at St. Augustine, and in Frank- 
lin County, at Apalachicola. As yet this fruit has not attracted much attention 
as an investment, as about twenty years are generally required to obtain fruit 
from the seed. 

The Ouava, a tree in its size and shape and manner of growth not unlike the 
peach tree, does about as well in the southern counties of Florida as it can any- 
where. From its fruit is made the guava jelly of commerce, so widely and so 
favorably known over the world. The taste for the fruit, like the taste for most 
tropical fruits, is an acquired one, but when acquired is fully endorsed. Some 
persons like the fruit upon first tasting it, but the majority require frequent 
tasting before the flavor becomes decidedly agreeable. The full crop ripens in 
August and September, but the trees have blossoms and fruit all the year, and all 
the year the fruit is ripening. They grow with less attention than the peach, and 
sometimes bear the second year from the seed. The fruit is ordinarily abo'^t the 
size of the peach, and fully as varied in size and quality. So far experience has 
demonstrated no other means of utilizing this fruit for market than by canning, 
or as jelly or marmalade. As to its exact profitableness, even in one of these 
forms, we have no very reliable data. 

TTie " Sugar-api)le'' in local nomenclature, the Spaniards put at or near the 
head of the fruit list for its excellency. In its flavor it is one of the most concen- 
trated sweets known among fruits, but the first taste has a smack of something 
repulsive, soon lost in a few repetitions, and then the acquired taste is very agree- 
able. It grows upon a shrub but little, if any, larger than the pomegranate, and 
in size and shape is somewhat like the pine cone. It decays too soon after ripen- 
ing for transportation, and as yet has established a use only at home. It thrives 
as far north as Tampa. 

The Pomegranate, several varieties of sweet and sour, grows finely in every 
part of the State. It is not a marketable product, but Mhen properly prepared 
makes a most delightful sub-acid summer drink — is a decided febrifuge much in 
vogue. The tree, witn its rich foliage and brilliant, coral-like flowers, is highly 
ornamental. 

The Coffee Plant has attained maturity in the open air in but one county in 
the State, or even the United States. It sometimes attains a height of ten or 
twelve feet. Whether it can be grown profitably on a large scale, and will figure 
among the available crops of Florida, is yet to be tested. 

The Mango is another tropical fruit of high flavor, and is now bearing abun- 
dantly as far north as the 38th degree of north latitude. In size and shape it 
somewhat resembles a pear, and in flavor has been likened to the apricot. 

The Sappadillo, after a little familiarity with it, is a very luscious and desir- 
able fruit. The tree attains about the dimensions of the orange, but will not stand 
the cold quite so well. A few trees are growing as»far north as the Manatee River. 
They are not yet in bearing, but as they grow finel3', promise well. 

The Alligator Pear, or Laurus Persea {Lintmus,) is a tree somewhat larger 
than the orange, resembling in the general appearance of its foliage and growth 
the magnolia. The fruit, when matured, is about the shape and color (the only 
similarities) of the pear; is palatable; flavor peculiar to itself; preferred by many 
to any other tropical fruit ; is marketable ; bears transportation quite as well as 
the orange; attains perfection as far north as 29° north latitude. 

The Japan Plum or Loquat, as well as the Japanese persimmon, flourish 
throughout the State. Both are excellent fruit, with growing popularity, and 
promise to be profitable products for markets beyond the State. The persimmon 



206 FLORIDA. 

is as large as an apple, and, in some of its varieties, very much the same shape. 
Some specimens of the fruit are seedless. The flav'or is rich and pleasant. 

The Peachy though it grows about as well in the far south of the State as 
farther north, yet does not fruit as regularly. Sometimes, for several years 
together, the tree will cast every bloom. In the northern counties, while the 
orange tree grows well, and even better than in the thinner lands of the southern 
counties, and for the last half a century have grown full crops for more than 
three-fourths of the years, yet are liable occasionally to be killed down by a severe 
freeze; but the peach, in at least its earlier varieties, offers a high remuneration 
for its tillage. In North Florida it can be ready for the earliest market and com- 
mand monopolizing prices. The Peen-to or Flat Peach, of China, begins to ripen 
in the neighborhood of Tallahassee, in Leon County, in the last week in April, 
and continues for a month. These peaches brought most extravagant prices in 
New York the past spring. 

Pears of very many varieties, but especially the Dwarfs, have been for many 
years favorite incumbents of the orchards in the northern and middle portions of 
the State, and are found to succeed well. Standards have been extensively planted 
of late years. Among these, the Bartlett has so far proven the most satisfactory. 
The introduction within the last few years in the northern counties, especially in 
Leon and Jefferson, of the celebrated LeConte variety, has given an impetus to 
the production of this fruit that amounts to a boom, and promises to rival in 
extent the orange industry. The LeConte is a most vigorous grower, comes into 
bearing the fourth year from the cutting, attains a growth of twenty-five or thirty 
feet, and is the most prolific and sure bearer of any character of fruit tree experi- 
mented w ith in Florida. The fruit is not, perhaps, as excellent in quality as some 
of the more choice varieties, but is, nevertheless, a very edible and readily market- 
able fruit. The rapidity of its growth, the small amount of capital, labor and time 
required to secure bearing orchards of any extent, its wonderful prolificness, excel- 
lent shipping properties and earliness of ripening, make the production of this 
pear deservedly one of the most popular investments in Florida. Prices in New 
York so far have been most satisfactory, and have stimulated the production of 
the LeConte, so that in the two counties of Leon and Jetferson many thousands of 
these trees have been put out within the two years past. 

Girqyes of several varieties grow wild throughout Florida, They rarely, if 
ever, occur in the pine w^oods, but in hummock land trees are hung and festooned 
in every direction walh the luxuriant growth of vines. In many localities con- 
siderable attention has been given to the cultivation of domesticated varieties. 
The Concord, Catawba, Ives, Clinton and other American grapes of that family 
have been found to grow and fruit well w^herever the proper attention has been 
given the pruning, etc. The Scuppernong has been more extensively propagated 
than any other grape. Of the production of any varieties of European wine 
grapes, I am unable to give any reliable information. Many experiments have 
been made, and none, I think, have so far been very favorable. This may be 
entirely owing to the want of proper knowledge of the best methods of pruning, 
etc. The so-called wines manufactured in Florida and other parts of the South 
are only cordials, made by the addition of sugar or spirits to the juice of the grapes. 
They are sweet, heavy drinks generally, with decided flavors peculiar to them- 
selves ; are palatable drinks when a taste is acquired for them, but are not wines 
in a commercial sense. Very considerable profit, however, attends their manufac- 
ture and sale. 

Apples, so far as I know, have never been extensively or very satisfactorily 
grown in Florida. There are in some of the northern counties small orchards of 
considerable age that have borne fruit abundantly for years, but are not of choice 



FLORIDA. 3Q7 

varieties. By proper selection of suitable varieties, and tlie adoption of a system 
of culture that experience will prove to be adapted to the Florida climate and 
seasons, there is little doubt that on the stiff, rolling lands of the hill country in 
the northern portion of the State, apples may yet become a prominent feature 
among the industries. 

Figs of every known variety do well in Florida, but in the most southern 
counties are a little uncertain about fruiting. When it does bear in those sections 
the fruit is quite as good as that grown further north, and it may be that pains- 
taking in its tillage will discover a remedy for this irregularity. In the East it is 
an article of great commercial value, and when Florida becomes fully exercised in 
fruit growing, and has acquired skill in preparing her fruits for market, the fig 
will probably become prominent among the list. The tree attains great age, and 
continues to bear indefinitely. Every home has its fig trees of difi-erent varieties, 
and the fruit is among the most M'holesome articles of diet. 

Plums of many wild varieties are found throughout the State. Little atten- 
tion has been bestowed on them. Some of the early Southern varieties have been 
found profitable for shipment North. They ripen about the first of April, ..nd can 
be put into the Northern market at a time when they have no other fruit to com- 
pete with. 

TJie Pecan of the West grows finely all over the State. It requires no tillage 
and nursing; comes into bearing from the planting of the nuts in ten or twelve 
years. The fruit is abundant, falls when ripe, is easily and cheaply gathered, bears 
keeping and rough shipment any distance in any climate. 

STOCK RAISING. 
In all the southern counties are to be found large and small herds of cattle. 
These run at large through the pine woods, swamps and vast prairies of the 
Kissimmee and Caloosahatcliie Valleys, and thrive on the coarse pasturage in a 
manner quite remarkable and satisfactory to their owners, who "round-up"'' once 
a year, mark and brand the young calves, and give little other attention to them. 
So little expense attends this sort of stock raising, that notwithstanding the small 
size of the cattle produced, they prove most profitable for shipment to the Cuban 
markets. Indeed, the hide and tallow of a five-year-old steer would return a good 
profit on the cost of his keeping. The cattle are not so large as those grown in 
Texas, because less attention has been given here to improving the native breeds 
of stock. The cattle raised in Florida are small, with thick heavy necks and fore 
parts and narrow loins; but when fat, a four-year-old, when dressed, will weio-h 
from 400 to 500 pounds. ° 

The buyers in the Cuban markets (to which shipments are made to the extent 
of 50,000 head per year) prefer Florida to Texas beef The grasses in the southern 
counties are more nutritious, and seem to impart a more agreeable flavor to the 
flesh, than in the northern part of Florida. That this business pays well has this 
practical proof: More money has been made in stock raising in South Florida 
than any other enterprise in the State until quite recently, and a number have 
thus grown wealthy from their herds. The improving of the breeds of cattle, and 
proper experiments with the grasses which may be grown successfully here, will 
make stock raising in Florida as general as it is profitable, and will give a value 
to a vast area in the State now practically a wilderness. 

FISH. 

The great variety and excellence of the fish in Florida is not one of the least 

attractions, whether to the sportsman or more practical housewife. The lakes 

and streams of the fresh waters abound in fish of the finest quality, prominent 

among which are the black bass, pike, jack, bream, and manv varieties of the 



208 FLORIDA. 

perch family. Along the coast the list of varieties is longer than the fisherman's 
list of names for them. Red snapper, black snapper or grouper, sheep's-head, red 
fish, black fish, pompano, Spanish mackerel, rock fish, mullet, and a long list of 
small "pan fish" are chief among the marketable varieties. The pompano is 
regarded as the choice among epicures. The snapper and grouper are both deep 
water fish, and are taken in great numbers by smacks on the banks off shore for 
the Havana, New Orleans and Galveston markets. They can be kept for weeks 
in the "wells" of the fishing smacks without injury to them. On both the 
Atlantic and gulf coasts there are extensive fisheries, where, in the season of the 
"run," mullet are taken in vast numbers on the seine-yards. Some of the strikes 
made by the fortunate seine-maslers number hundreds of barrels. These fish take 
salt quite as well as the mackerel of the northern waters, and furnish an abundant 
supply of cheap and wholesome food to the inhabitants. 

Along the gulf coast, west of the Suwanee, and especially on the coast line of 
Wakulla and Franklin Counties, the revenue derived from this industry is con- 
siderable. The proximity of those points to the southern counties of Alabama and 
Georgia enables the small farmers of those sections to reach the Florida coast in 
their farm wagons. About the first of October, when the " run " of the fish com- 
mences, the Georgia and Alabama farmer takes his wife and children in his wagon 
and journeys southward. A week of recreation is spent, after the year's work, on 
the beach, where these "up-country" folk enjoy the salt air and water, and return 
home with several barrels of pickled fish to be eaten during the winter. It is esti- 
mated that more than three hundred Georgia wagons pass through Tallahassee 
alone, in the fall, on their way to the fisheries. Perhaps no Avaters abound in fish 
in greater quantity or of better quality than the waters of the coast of Florida. 
Recently the catch of several fisheries along the coast have been utilized in the 
manufacture of a fish fertilizer, which is taking a high place among the farmers^ 
and promises to develop into an extensive industry. 

Green Turtle may be mentioned as another commodity of the Florida coast. 
In Key West the beef and turtle markets adjoin. They are both supplied with 
about equal regularity, and very many prefer the turtle to the beef, particularly 
after the latter has been submitted to the hardships of a voyage from the main- 
land. Turtle are shipped alive to the Northern markets from Key West, and 
sometimes car loads of them pass over the Florida Transit and West India Rail- 
road from Cedar Keys on their way North. One of the sports of persons living 
near the coast is walking the beach in April and May, watching for and "turning" 
the turtle that crawl out upon the shore in that season to lay. When they find 
the turtle making her nest or laying her eggs, a sufficient number of persons lay 
hold and turn her upon her back. She is then helpless, unable to re-turn herself^ 
so as to have the use of her feet. Parties are thus supplied with both the turtle 
and her eggs, and both are prized as savory food. 

Oysters are so continuous around the coast, that when the railroad and canal 
system shall have been completed, a supply, at short notice, will reach any part of 
the interior of the State in a few hours, at the expense of gathering and short 
freightage. The supply seems inexhaustible. 

Sponge. — The gathering of sponge along the gulf coast is rapidly becoming an 
industry of considerable dimensions. The principal sponge reefs lie to the south- 
eastward of the port of St. Marks, between that port and Cedar Keys. A fair 
estimate of the value of the whole amount of sponge taken in the year is little 
short, if any, of $750,000. 

The lumber business is the most important manufacturing interest in the 
State, and the number of mills is steadily increasing. Saw mills of all sizes, rang- 
ing in value from a few thousand to fifty thousand or more dollars in value, are 



FLORIDA. 2„g 



scattered over the State, sawing lumber for local Northern an,1 fo,»- a 

It is almost impossible to compute the immense ,St of F^.^IV^'' """"^- 

SOCIETY. 
GOVERNMENT OF FLORID 1 

evc;sitr.mTaut:^ 

are chosen for four ye-,rs T Ulw r °"' *''™ "'""^ *'y^- Senators 

first Tuesday ^J^CZ^ In^ irK:;^^ TcW ^'TV' °" ''^^ 
least one representative; none more than fZ Se...^ county shall have at 
fourtl, nor more than one-half of th^^T^ . ^'^"'"'"'^ ""^^r less than one- 

ernor is elected for Ltr j-ta ' To breh I'uT"' °' """ ^'^"""y- ^l^e Gov- 
a citizen of the United State and three °' ""'' ''"™ "^^ <■" "'"« y^^'^^ 
One year's residence quaSifles'. '■'"'' " ""'™ "' ^'°""»- *-"^™^— 

T'le present Constitution of Florida was adopted in 19fiS n ■ • ■, 
later constitutions of the North and We,f L„ TI f?' ^'^ " "°"'" '" ""<= 
in suffrage and exemption clauses Fmlt i '"°'"'^"'' "^'^'"^ ■""" "I'eral 

the same rights as to P^^as nat I Z-^eUiir ^T' ""*"'^ ^"j°^ 
owned before or acquired ai^terimrrirr V " '^" l^^P^'ty of wife 

of the husband. "*^' '' '"''''" ^^P"'"*''' ^^'I «<>' "able to debts 

SCHOOLS. 

attendance of pup'ils i^ T, w'a's' 8 ^M^d f/ssi aror^'^tr '""'" "^^ ''''' 
years being 33,.501 In 7S-(! fi,„ .*''*.«"" ni I883 5i,94.,_t]ie mcrease in six 

1124,083.91°; in 1883 the exonditr""" '""°""'"' '" $158,840.99; in 1880 
increase of' $,03,5olm'%;?™^:^;;^^^^^^ '° *303,..48.n2-showi„g an 
accumulated from 184o- up to ZoL tl^^, <=°'™™'^ school fund, which liad 
amounts to $439,984.2.LLwincn a,; Z ■ '° *250,384.35, while to-day it 

nearly seventy-five per cem^" ^'clsT iHwr^ars.'"" '"'" "" '''''">'' •'^"''" 

CLIMATE. 

MexS.' 1x:;:mesff^he.ftr^"r^T' '' "'^ ^"''°*"= ^^^ ''-• '''« «»>f of 
falling below 33°, aud in sum'me • Zw, ,"*' ™'''' '^ "^'"P<''-''t"re in winter seldom 
ture for the summer is 78^;"!, ;;""'" "Z^ '"^''™ 90°- The average tempera- 
the Iteat of summer, the Ire'e/: from l^Mt .• ,'''• ""'^ °^""' '^^''^-^ '-""- 
gulf breeze sets in about nilhtfa™ '" '"'"°^ ^"""S '"« "•■•>'• ^'""^ "^^ 

twe.:!^::er;::Xbr;^lf^r'"'^^ 

for autumn, 7a35»; for «!«!'% 3» Tf^'^' ™-**''° ^*'^- ^ «"• ™'»-er, 81.83»; 

mtei, ,,(,.33 . The mean temperature of St. Augustine, 



'210 FLORIDA. 

calculated upon twenty years' observations, is, for spring, 68.54°; for summer, 
80.27°; for autumn, 71.73°; and for winter, 58.08*'. The mean temperature of 
Tampa, which is on the western coast, 1° 48'' further south than St. Augustine, 
calculated upon twenty -five years' observations, is, for spring, 72.06° ; for summer, 
80.2°; for autumn, 73.08°; for winter, 62.85°. The mean temperature of Key 
West, in latitude 34° 32' calculated upon fourteen years' ol)servations, is, for 
spring 75.79°; for summer, 82.51°; for autumn, 78.23° ; for winter, 69.58°. The air 
is bland, not hot, in sunniier. 

FROSTS. 

At Jacksonville, frosts are possible any month, from October to April inclu- 
sive. Dr. Baldwin found, from twenty-seven years' record, an average of 2.3 
frosts for November, 5.2 for December, 5.4 for January, 3.1 for February, 1.3 for 
March. In April and October there is .2 of a likelihood of frost ; none between. 
As the traveler goes southward along the peninsula, the number of frosts, of 
course, diminishes; and at Key West and along the southern tier of coast 
counties they practically disappear. Much inquiry left me unable to fix any line 
north of this where it could be said one had gotten below frost ; but the phenom- 
enon is rare, at any rate, below 28° latitude. 

RAINFALL AND HUMIDITY. 

During something over sixteen years the average rainfall at Jacksonville was 
50.29 inches. Only 7.06 inches of this amount fell, on the average, in winter; 
9.19 inches during the spring; leaving 20.5 inches for the sunmmer, and 12.98 
inches for the autumn. 

The average annual amount of humidit}^ at Jacksonville was found to be 5.7 
grains of w^ater to the cubic foot of air. This is said to be about enough to be 
pleasant for respiration. 

NUMBER OF CLEAR DAYS. 

During a period of twenty years (and some years longer, for several of the 
months hereinafter mentioned), it was found that at Jacksonville, January 
averaged about twenty clear days, February nineteen, March twenty, April 
twentj'-five, May twenty-two, June seventeen, July eighteen, August nineteen, 
September seventeen, October nineteen, November twenty, and December twenty. 
It is not to be understood, by any means, that the cloudy days in this calculation 
were rainy days. Probably, on something like half of them, rain fell. 

THE WINDS. 

The northwest wind is the cold, dry wind of Florida. It is the wind that kills 
the orange trees. The northeast wind is the cold, wet wind. The east wind is a 
delightful wind. The south wind is somewhat like it in the temperature it brings 
and the sensation it produces. Dr. Baldwin also speaks of how visitors at coast 
resorts on the Atlantic side are disgusted with the northeast winds from the 
Atlantic, and how much colder they seem than they are. I think this, however, 
is a characteristic of the northeast winds (and even winds from the east consider- 
ably higher up the coast) from the Atlantic. They punish and deceive every one 
from a western climate, and any climate where one is not familiar with them. 
"Raw" is the word applied to them, and one seems almost freezing wiien the 
thermometer is not at the freezing point. 

The winds from the gulf are cjuite different. Here is a very happy bit of 
description from Lanier : " There is a certain large blandness in the atmosphere, 
a sense of fiirawayness in the wide water stretches, an indefinable feeling of with- 
drawal from harsh life, that give to this suave region,* as compared with others. 



*He is speaking of Pensacola. 



FLORIDA. 



waters presently ceae to ^e wateT» ,°^' ^ T^' "'"'"^ ^^"*°^«^- ^"'^ '•>« 
that shine." *'"'''• *■"' '''"'" °°'^' &'•''«'. '"vel enchantments- 

(variIl''i;t:dT„trv'at!:,;Tncfir-''r' <">----"- "^ "- ...,(■ coast, 
unspeakably tranquHizS^ •„ " vnl 'T ""'^ ""'*«' ''^ "'"'^•^'- ••«"" ' 

narcotizing ^ *^ ° °"™"' '^''''''''^' ""'= *o"l<I ""nk, and deliciously 

THE HEALTHFULNESS OF FLORIDA 

of Surseon-Genera T^^^T^T^V" *'" ^'^'^- ^ """'« "•<"" *"<' «■■'"« 
statistics of th blarshow that 1. T "'" ^™^' """ ^"^'^ ^ " 1°^'-' '"« 
much milder tvpe in p"orirth,„ ."""o'' '"''"'' "''"^' '''•'"" '"'"«"« «'■« of a 

- of deaths ther ' o the number Jcf 7 ''*""' '" '"^ ^°'°° ' ^"" "^'^ "-""er 
among the troops servW in' h 5 "■""'"""' ''^™^ '^"^ "^^^ ""'O less than 

DivisiL (mea„i!:r:^n:s;:,srrul^^^^^ ^:;s; r «• ^^ «'^ *'">« 

death to thirty-six eases of remittent ferer in he N- h^' ^'""T.'"'' '' """^ 
the Southern, one to fifty-four- in FlorM. u '?,'',^°'«'''™. ™« to fifty-two; in 
carefully collected statisics of' t si \°""°^®^- * * ^rom the 
tality of the whole pen^XofFfor^' o nf '"" """' "^^ ''"°"^' ''»"' "f '»'''- 

of the United Statrs "Jr ce! t tdLd t'm' "b"' "'"*' " ""^^ "•"■"°- 
refutation, that Florida nosseir ' ^ *" '''''"••<''' ^'"^°"t fear of 

any other State o. TerHt'o^e uX.. •''"'"''"'^ ''"' ^"'"'^'""^ ^""'"^ "^^ 
Prominent amonff the oanspQ nf T('ir^,.j.i„» 

malaria or other atmospheric poison "move most of the resulting 

trees''«;^b;:X:LTarlftoroX ''-"Tl ^^"'" '""^ forests, .'whose taU 
especially near the surfecet^ne't T' ^'" *°. "'^ '"°* ''"' ""'<= obstruction, 
tion, hea thful in L inmlce mJ' '" """ ""™ ^"* "^ '"^'"°"'' -''''••'"'- 

ozone, that pecull:;!' lifi^Lio^r::^^^^^ "'^^ "T™^'"-" "- 

properties, exists more abundantly in the atn";snhere J tT "', ''""''^'"'' 

coast than in the atmosphere of pl.aces further i^n!, i '''" ""' '■"""" ""« 

States has so nmch coas line is FWi.1 ' ""'' °" ""'' "'^""^ American 

medical men ho d tha t^'entfne f ,' 7T> ""'''"'''• ^'"'''°™"'- ^''»"'' '^•■'™^d 
lar-er decree tlnn ',,"*'"'!"'""« ^^l^^led trom the pine forest possesses in a 

.he^;tmxr T^r: ^TsrpZeeir n °r ^rr '""" "'^ '^^'- "" 

for 1880, page 71.) proceedings of Medical Association of Florida 

auth^rU,^!i:rr"t:.\:!^°''.°MS:'''"''y^^-"-' Dictionary, as quoted in the 

eharactcHstics of thV cZ^te o' r^on! .ZiS ""t^ ''^^^'■'""^'"^^ 
of Florida, reported to the rpn«n« p. r ^''''"'^"'^- ^lie niortiiury statistics 

as an,ong the luost L'l'lt"',- ^1^=^ of r'll^ion """""■ "' '''''''' '''--''' '- 

standpoint f:^':::il!:j^:t:;fr 1'^'' ""?'■"' ""-■■ """.-t,eve„from the 
lemons and pin M^^^'^^^^^ ''""' "^ "'^T/' along with the „ran..es, 

detra,, fn.nAh s™ nfj / . r,?' T "" "'" P"' "^^ ''""<'^^- I* "»- not 
sale. Mere money-geinTiP, 1 .:,':?'';" T '""' *'""" '" "" """''^ '- 
it that it has not els^whe^e Tl i exal V t" ?""™°''' "" '"""'Pl'e'-e about 
this aureola about the brOw , J ,,fr l^of t'h; °'' glorification of in,I„stry, 

nil lit. IS one of the unique phases of Florida life. 



212 FLORIDA. 

Nowhere else does money-making seem so much a pastime and labor a holiday. 
The sweat of the brow is transmuted to perfume; "dry" statistics become bloom- 
ing and odorous; utilitarianism is idealized; capital is sestheticised ; thrift is 
glorified, and the duty and dignity of labor are veiled by its beauty as by a rosy 
cloud. " The chink of the guinea" finds an endearing and excellent accord in the 
melodies of bird-songs. Embellishment is not only the embodiment of the soul's 
aspirations after the beautiful, not only the pledge and promise of remuneration, 
but remuneration itself Industry does not swelter in the sweat of toil, but is 
bathed in the elixir of delight. It brings not only money, as do hogs and hominy, 
but the blissful remunerations of flowers and beautiful fruits. Indeed, labor is not 
only the handmaid of thrift, but his enchanting mistress. 

But, whatever one may think of Florida from the standpoints of money- 
making or health, her name is certainly a spell. It is not only suggestive of fra- 
grance, but almost redolent. It acts like an incantation upon the imagination. 
Her clime is at once bounty and beauty. She seems the theatre of "selectest 
influences" of nature in her softer moods, the haunt of the muses, the land of soft 
and fragrant airs, perpetual flowers and unfailing bird-songs. It is such a place 
as is dreamed of and sighed for by young lovers, in the engrossing reveries of 
entranced day-dreams. It is the Mecca of the cultured voluptuary, and the 
asylum of the invalid. And not only is her spell upon the imagination, but upon 
the memory. The pages of history and poetry revive ; pages where genius has 
recorded her highest triumphs of description. Arcady and the vales of Cash- 
mere bloom afresh ; Cathay and Candahar revive ; the Tuscan fields, the famous 
Arno and " star-bright Italy," and the place of— 

" Dance and Provencal song and sunburnt mirth." 

Why should she not become the future nursery of poets ; a precious reposi- 
tory of the beautiful ; at once a glorious picture gallery and nursery of genius ; 
where may be stored the ripe fruits of genius, and where genius may find her 
highest inspirations and most rapturous solaces? Why should not there be a 
civilization of as high a type and more romantic than marked the old world; 
where poetry and art and song can grow side by side with a seemly utilitarianism 
— a utilitarianism not hard and cold and all engrossed in money-making, but 
where time and opportunity are given for a sumptuous taste and a munificent, 
superb aestheticism to revel in; where the triumphs shall be of the poet's page, 
the painter's canvas, the sculptor's marble? 

Florida will be studied in this aspect by him who seeks "a refuge from the 
vulgarity and irritation of business;" who recognizes the music of the "inner 
voice " in the river ; who feels — 

"A distant dearness in the hill, 
A secret sweetness in the stream ;" 

who finds — 

" Sermons in stones, tongues in the trees. 
Books in the running brooks." 

To such, even the most rapturous rhapsody would need no apology; for there is 
a time for rhapsodies, as well as for plodding, groveling, gain-getting. 

I have referred to Florida as a reviver of recollections of poetry. One miglit 
almost think some of the pictures of other climes were drawn for Florida. Take 
some scenes, for instance, from Tennyson's "Recollections of the Arabian 
Nights:"— 

" The sloping of the moonlit sward 
Was damask work, and deep inlay 
Of braided blooms unmown, which crept 
Adown to where the water slept. 
* * * * 

Imbower'd vaults of pillar'd palm. 
Imprisoning sweets, which, as they clomb 
Heavenward, were stay'd beneath the dome 



FLORIDA. 213 

Of hollow boughs. 

Far off and where the lemon grove 

In closest coverture iipspriing, 

The living airs of middle night 

Died round the mock-bird* as he sung." 

Or, as one walks, some bright day in winter, tlirough scenes where Avealth 
and taste have reveled in adornment, this description from the "Gardener's 
Daughter," by the same poet, would not be amiss : — 

" All the land in flowery squares, 
Beneath a broad and equal blowing wind. 
Smelt of the coming sumroer." 
* * * * 

" Heaven was pure 
Up to the sun, and May from verge to verge." 

Take some lines from Byron : — 

" Fair clime, where every season smiles. 
Far from the winters of the west. 
By every breeze and season blest. 
Returns the sweets by nature given 
In softest incense back to heaven, 
And grateful yields that smiling sky 
Her fairest hue and fragrant sigh." 

— The Giaour. 

"The dewy morn 
With breath all incense and with cheek all bloom." 

— Childe Harold. 

" It is a goodly sight to see 
What heaven has done for this delicious land ; 
What fruits of fragrance blush on every tree." 

Childe Harold. 

And M'ho does not think of what can be, for the most part, in Florida — only 
better — as he remembers parts of Selim's Feast in the "Light of the Harem," in 
XallaRookh?— 

" The board was spread with fruits and wine. 
With grapes of gold like those that shine 
On Casbin's hills; pomegranates full 
Of melting sweetness, and the pears 
And sunniest apples that Cabul, 
In all its thousand gardens, bears. 
Plantains, the golden and the green. 

And Bassa dates and apricots." 

And one is tempted to quote the spread that Porphyro laid for Madelaine, in 
Keats' "Eve of St. Agnes;" and one thinks of the spirit in "Comus," in the 
epilogue, as it flies to where — 

"West winds, with musky wing. 
About the cedarn alleys fling 
Nard and Cassia's balmy smells ;" 

and gorgeous descriptions from other poets. Coleridge's "Kubla Khan," the 
famous scene in " The Lady of Lyons," and more ; woo the pen, seeking quota- 
tioii ; but their suit nmst be rejected. 

Thus the memory reverts to scenes where the rich redundance of oriental 
magniticence and splendor have been glorified by genius. And there is, for many 
poetic teiiiperaments, that atmosphere for the imagination which almost makes 
such an one the inhabitant of the "lazy -pacing clouds," and to float over enchanted 
palaces whence strains of — 

" Divine, enchanting ravishment arise," 

and which are peopled M'lth ladies fair and plumed knights; where life is a revels 

'* Of love, of joyance and of gallantry." 

Suppose Florida were, in fact, only some " delicious land," where the — 

" Graces, knit with the hours in rosy dance. 
Lead on perpetual spring." 



*1 have substituted the mocking-bird for the bulbul. He often sings during much of the beautifu\ 
nights far South. 



214 FLORIDA. 

Even then it would have its uses, as I have said. The ennuied millionaire,, 
the overworked scholar, the professional man worn with a long life of toil, the 
tradesman — all who seek to get out of the hurly-burly, the dust and jostle of 
this feverish, work-a-day world, and find a respite from it, and Avho seek rest to 
the overstrung nerves and the jaded powers, will find a charm in Florida, a harm- 
less but — " Pleasing sorcery that charms the sense. 

And laps it in Elysium," 

as did the song of the lady in " Comus." Therefore, if Florida were an Arcady, that 
were enough. But Florida is not a fancy, but a fact. You see it, " not in the frenzy 
of a dreamer's eye," but as "a sober certainty of waking bliss." These indescrib- 
able lakes, these orange groves, copses of camellia, pittospliorum, oleander, sweet 
olive, roses, viburnum, these bowers of live oak, magnolia, all this "wilderness of 
sweets," this wealth of shade and color and fragrance, are all real. " Fancy lags 
behind fact, the imagination becomes barren and uninventive " when one attempts 
the theme of description. 

. And, while there is no glory of time, no halo of history about Florida, none of 
that hallowing effect that endears decayed splendor and bathes it in the purple 
light of bygone centuries; while there is none of this prestige of age, this conse- 
cration of decadence, I cannot see why Florida should not prove a resuscitation 
of Spain in her palmy days, her "golden prime," when the latter furnished olives 
and olive oils, raisins, oranges, figs and other choice fruits, and the wondrous 
fabrics of her looms, to commerce. Florida may prove a repetition of these. Her 
silk and woolen and canning factories will spring up, and the wealth, splendors 
and sumptuous magnificence of her products Mall vie with those times, without 
their ignorance and superstition. She will prove of joy the sojourn, of sickness 
the asylum, of richest and most beautiful commerce the mart, the home of art, and 
the most fascinating scene in which to enjoy the dolce far niente. It surel}^ ought 
to be a pride of patriotism, a solace to national pride, that if other lands have had 
their vales and mountains embalmed in song, we have our Floi'ida, where one can 
revel in the rich bounties nature, unpersuaded, yields, and where immense 
rewards of beautiful luxuriance await those who will avoo her tender responsive- 
ness, with apposite cultivation. And, while we exult in our magnificent vastness 
of areas, our great rivers, our lofty mountains and fertile valleys, Avhy may we 
not cherish the land of orange bowers; where the landscape is perpetually a 
flower, and ever redolent with myriad fragrances? And I love to think of the 
solid, enduring contributions to our future literature which the inspirations 
Florida will awaken shall yield. The imagination will not be cheated of its 
enchantments and the exalted sensibility of its opportunities. If the nightingale 
will sing on the heath, her temptation to sing will be none the less in a bower. If 
the lower slopes of Parnassus yield such inspiration, what will its " lieaven- 
kissnig" heights afford V Up there are the finer vistas, "the brighter ether, more 
purpureal gleams." So, if the prairie poet, with pig-sty odors haunting his sense, 
and with corn cribs and hogs in sight, witli a kindled imagination, "bodies forth" 
groves of flowers and "blasts of balm" in his "fine frenzy," will not those sus- 
ceptibilities be exalted and his fancy take higher flights, if he shall breathe the 
odors and pluck the fruit of orange groves, hear the songs of mocking-birds, see — 

" Fields ever fresh and groves forever green," 

and be intoxicated with odors undreamed of, exhaled from flowers always abloom; 

where — " He sleeps and wakes in scented air;" 

where the spirit of fragrance is not only up with the day, but, like a fond, 
serenading lover, is abroad all the nightV If a Milton glorifies the tame 

^ndSCape — " Russet lawns and fallows gray. 

Where the nibbling flocks do stray " — 



FLORIDA. 215 

in his musical poem, what may not some future Milton do for the enameled fields 
of Florida? 

And then I think one of the sweetest beauties of Florida is a subtle power of 
rejuvenation, that springs from some mystic source, we know not where or how; 
when the feelings of early youth revive, and of the days when we used to pluck 
the daisies, chase the butterflies, wade in the brook ; when our tears were only 
of the eye and not the heart ; when sorrow was as evanescent as an April shadow 
upon a gladsome bird; the days of the "sunshine of the breast," when the "spirits 
flew in feathers;" when we were "blithesome and cumberless," like Hogg's sky- 
lark, or as lightsome as the swallow, " chasing itself at its own wild will " over 
the glassy lake or floweiy mead; the daj's ere care came or poverty (or if the 
the latter, heeded not, in bhssful compensations); theVlays ere the vanishment of 
loved ones, or ever the golden chalice of hope was broken, that used to be " brim- 
med with such delirious draughts of richest joy." Thankful are we for any "joy- 
font" whence we can quaff one fill of rapture from life's embittered cup— and that 
fountain, from the mystic somewhere, springs in Florida. 



HOMOSASSA, ON THE GULF COAST OF FLORIDA. 

THE Spaniards who first visited Florida found its centers of aboriginal 
population, not along the eastern coast and the St. John's liiver, but 
among the salubrious hills and rich hammocks of the central portion of 
the peninsula, and about the lieadwaters of the spring-fed, crystal streams Avhicli 
flow westward into the Gulf of Mexico. De Soto, starting on the memorable 
expedition which resulted in the discovery of the Mississippi, landed at Tampa, 
on the gulf coast, in about latitude 28°, and began his explorati(ms thence in a 
northerly direction. The accounts of that expedition, gleaned from the manu- 
scripts of old Spanish chronicles, teem with descriptions of the luxuriant fruitful- 
ness and dense population of this M'onderful region. 

The Indians of De Soto's time appear to have been dispossessed by the 
Seminoles. When this brave tribe finally succumbed to the power of the white 
race, these conquerors instinctively turned towards the west, and, among the 
fertile fields whence the preceding races had been ejected, founded some of tlieir 
first settlements and established their most productive and extensive plantations. 

Many of these scenes lay in what is now known as Hernando County, which, 
in location, soil and climate, has natural advantages that, as they are now about 
to be better known, cannot fail to vindicate the judgment of the pioneers of 
history. Its boundary on the north and west is the Withlacoochee River, a deep, 
dark stream, with high, heavily-wooded banks, and navigable for steamboats for a 
hundred miles. On the west is the Gulf of Mexico, forming its coast boundary 
for 70 miles. Southerly it reaches to within 10 miles of the waters of Tampa Bay. 
It extends, therefore, very nearly from the 28th to the 29th parallel of latitude. 
In the eastern and central portions of the county the surface is rolling, and 
broken by high hills and beautiful lakes, and heavily timbered with pine. The 
western portion is a gentle slope towards the gulf, and is covered for the most 
part by a dense hard-wood or hammock growth. It is traversed also by several 
bright, broad streams, gushing with great volume and power from the recesses of 
the earth, clear, swift and deep from their springs to the gulf. 

Most notable of these streams is the Homosassa. Kearly midway of the coast 
line of the State, and at the point where the distance between the gulf and the 
Atlantic is least, this river bursts suddenly out from the earth in two powerful 
springs, and flows westerly eight miles to the gulf. The strong current cuts its 
channel clean and deep, making the river navigable nearly to its source. The 
transparency of the river waters is something wonderful. On the springs the 
floating boat seems poised in mid-air, and small objects are as distinct at a depth 
of 60 feet as if seen through a sheet of window glass. Even here innumerable 
fish from river and gulf of all variety and size, impeded in their upward course, 
linger and play as if loath to leave so bright a pool. As one passes up or down 
the river, shoals of fish beneath dart away in such crowds it seems as if the very 
bottom were moving out from underneath. The banks are fringed with a growth 
of the greatest luxuriance, the marvellous richness of the soil declaring itself in 
gigantic and picturesque oaks, bays, magnolias, palms and cedars, with a dense 
undergrowth of strange and tropical beauty. Many islands embraced in the 
broad and winding current are clothed in the same bright garb. Among the salt 
bayous that back up from the gulf to meet the river in its lower course, the lands 
stretch away in vast salt meadows, interspersed with islands of palm, like oases, 
though instead of desert sands, the picture is a scene of outspread verdure. 

The shell-rock which underlies the soil, broken abruptly at the water's edge, 
gives a singular finnness of line to the shore and affords lauding places at many 
points, and at some, perfect piers extending far into the deep water. This same 
rock often forms a natural bridge among the little islets and inlets of the river. 
Thus, on Otter Creek, a stream of dark and wondrous beauty overarched by 



FLORIDA. 



217 




218 FLORIDA. 

briglit-lcavcd trees, the rook in one place casts over it a perfect bridge, Ijroad and 
strong enougli for heavy travel. 

On s{!veral of the islands in the lower river, the shores are lined with deep 
shell mounds, some covering acres and 20 or oO feet thick, in which are not only 
bones and teeth of animals, but also fragments of pottery curiously wrought, and 
some of them with no mean attempt at artistic ornament. Live oaks many cen- 
turies old are growing, deep-rooted, out of some of these mounds. 

In the rich hammocks on the banks and islands of this beautiful river the 
Seminole Indians made one of their principal strongholds, which they fought 
desperately to defend. On the charming lathloe Island, four miles from the 
springs and also from the river mouth, the famous war-chief Tiger-Tail made his 
home and surrounded himself with his chosen braves. At an early period of 
colonization a settlement of Swedes was made on a fine eminence just below the 
springs. They Avere all massacred b}^ the Indians. Tht^se fields — a hundred acres 
or more — are known as the " Harold Fields." 

Soon after the close of the Seminole war the Hon. D. L. Yulee, with an entire 
State to choose from, selected as the site of the great enterprises he contemplated 
the rich hammock lands on the south bank of the Homosassa. He purchased 
about 5,000 acres, with a river front of four miles, including the " Harold Fields" 
and lathloe Island. Of this dense hammock he cleared a thousand acres, built a 
small town of " quarters" for his army of slaves, erected the finest sugar mill in 
the State, with storehouses, shops and all necessary accessories, and entered upon 
the production of sugar on a vast scale. For his own residence he selected the 
former home of the Seminole chief, and on lathloe Island, or, as it was thence- 
forward more commonly called, Tiger-Tail, he built a commodious house and 
established his family in a luxurious home. The yield of these fields that had 
slumbered so long beneath the primeval forest was enormous, averaging a ton to 
the acre, besides the molasses. Indeed, a single acre, where the soil was thinnest 
above the table-rock, with a little care to cover the roots and entirely without 
fertilizers, produced 2,7.~0 pounds of sugar. 

During the great (\\.\y& of its prosperity the Homosassa was full of trading 
vessels and pleasure craft; a mail steamer made weekly trips to its head from 
Cedar Keys, 40 miles away, and no settlement on the gulf coast showed greater 
activity 

But the blighting breath of war swept away these solid structures of civiliza- 
tion and culture almost as completely as it had done before to the traces of the 
ruder life of Seminole and aborigine. A gunboat of the Federal blockading 
squadron of the gulf entered the river, steamed up among its beautiful banks and 
islands, bearing destruction with it and leaving ruin to mark its course. The 
luxurious home on lathloe vanished like a dream ; ashes and crumbled heaps of 
stone remained alone to mark its place. Although the dense belt of timber that 
fringed the river bank shut out from view of the gunboat the sugar mill and 
quarters beyond, so that the}'- for the time escaped destruction, yet the slaves all 
fled under such terrors that they never returned. It was not strange that confla- 
gration soon swept away the sugar mill and other remnants of its busy life, and 
that the plantation should be left a picture of desolation. But exuberant nature, 
with marvellous rapidity, has covered these ruins with a glory all her own. The 
fields are already for the most part thickly shaded by the vigorous growth of pal- 
mettoes and other hard-wood trees, the stone-heaps adorned with tracery of vines 
and climbing plants, and the furrows in the open carpeted by richest sward of 
green. Of the old quarters a few cabins stand, with huge stone chimneys and 
open fireplaces, beneath outspreading live oaks and palmetto and date palms. 
Near by is tiie ivy-mantled chimney marking the site of the old plantation 



FLORIDA. 



210 




220 FLORIDA. 

church, and farther ou the great stone chhnney of the sugar mill, massive and 
grand as the tower of some ancient castle, festooned from base to summit with 
thick clustering ivy, woodbine and flowering vines, while beneath are strewn the 
scattered parts of the magnificent machinery, half concealed by a tropical luxuri- 
ance of shrubs and vines and young forest trees. 

Among the things that could not be jt\'holly destroyed is the far-famed orange 
grove on lathloe Island, whose fruit, known as the Ilomosassa orange, has long 
been the chief prize-taker at fairs and eagerly sought in all markets where it is 
known. This grove and the loveliness of lathloe Island attracted some enter- 
prising parties to erect upon the ruins left by the gunboat a commodious house 
and a number of cottages, where for some little time flourished one of the most 
attractive winter resorts in Florida. 

But these structures and tokens of human comfort and appreciation were 
destined soon, as if by some strange fate, to perish by conflagration. 

Still the native loveliness remains, and nature unconquerable rises in fresh 
magnificence upon the ruins of the old. The scars of fire and flame have healed 
upon the orange trees, or w^here they were struck down, vigcn'ous shoots have 
sprung up from their roots; grand old fig trees and luscious lemons, bananas, 
guavas and other fruit-bearing shrubs, gorgeous cactus and agaves, clustering 
oleanders that are no longer shrubs but trees, make the thrice-ruined place still a 
home of beauty. 

The soil of the Homosassa region is in striking contrast with that of most 
other portions of the State, and, indeed, quite remarkable. It is a rich loam, 
almost without sand, formed of decomposed vegetable matter from the luxuriant 
growth of centuries, mixed with disintegrated shell and lime. Beneath this is a 
sheet of level rock, which seems to be a conglomerate of the debris of coral and 
other marine shells, and still underneath this firm foundation are frequently found 
beds of m.irl. Upon this table-rock the soil lies some three feet thick a little 
remote from the river, but at its edge often not more than as many inches ; in a 
few places, in fiict, the rock is quite bare. The appearance to one looking for 
deep and fertile soils is somewhat disheartening, but these appearances are greatly 
corrected by experience. The rock is so porous that the roots of plants once 
started, go through it with ease, and from it draw the moisture which it retains 
like a sponge, and also other elements which contribute to the perfection of the 
plant. It is said that, in the old plantation times, the negroes employed in plant- 
ing cane, upon coming to one of these bare-rock surfoces, w^ould lay a joint down 
and run for a hoeful of earth to cover it. This was all that was needed. This 
joint would grow as luxuriantly as any of its fellows planted in deeper soil. This 
thin and rock-supported soil will also produce grasses of the sweetest and most 
succulent character, which is a circumstance quite different from the case of other 
more familiar Florida soils. 

Back from the river, in the midst of the hammock lands, the soil is deeper by 
several feet, and, of course, adapted to a deeper culture, especially that of orange 
and lemon groves ; but any of it, even the thinnest, is well suited for the smaller 
fruits, such as strawberries and pineapples, and many garden vegetables, as cab- 
bages, melons, tomatoes, peas and beans, and other profitable crops. 

On the river banks and islands below the old fields, the numerous shell 
mounds five to twenty feet deep alford inexhaustible fertility for every sort of 
agriculture, from the orange, lemon, fig, guava and banana to the finest small 
fruits of the garden. 

As to the native woods, the characteristic ones are the palms, the bays, inclu- 
ding the magnolia, which flourishes here to a wonderful degree ; including also 
the red bay, a wood firm and fine of grain and susceptible of beautiful polish, 



FLORIDA 



231 




^22 FLORIDA. 

with a color between the cherry and the mahogany ; the oaks of all species, the 
sweet gum and the fragrant red cedar. Not only do the cedar forests fill the air 
with their rich aroma, but the wood-piles in the door yards are positively attrac- 
tive by reason of their fragrance. This is a luxury which even the poor man has. 
It will be observed that the pine and the cypress are absent, the sand for the one 
and the swamp for the other not being found near the banks of the Homosassa, 
but only at a distance of three to five miles. 

As to the animal products of the woods and waters, nature as yet dominates. 
In the old fields and the surrounding hammocks, and on the palm-clad islands of 
the savannas, wild deer abound, and the wild turkey is an easy prize. Bears, too, 
are common, and the wild cat makes himself quite at home. The panther or 
tiger, or Florida lion, may sometimes be seen or heard, though seldom met. 
Coons and 'possums make sport for the sportsman who likes variety. 

Many curious birds rarely found in other regions make their haunts among 
the untraversed woods and streams, while geese, brant and ducks in great flocks 
frequent the lower waters of the river and the lagoons and bayous near the coast. 

Among the edible fish frequenting the river are the sheep's-head, mullet, sea 
trout, black bass, blue-fish, red and channel bass, skip-jack or silver fish, bream, 
roach, red snapper, catfish, sailor's choice, cavalla, white ray, pompano and tarpon. 
Of shell-fish there are crabs, and turtles in several varieties, and the salt bayous 
that lead into the river in its lower course are literally choked with oysters of the 
finest kind. There are also porpoise of three varieties, and some fish of not so 
agreeable form and habit, as the saw-fish, gar-fish, jew-fish, drum-fish, needle-fish, 
dog-fish and sting-ray. Alligators are seen occasionally in the lagoons, and some- 
times by the river side where the banks are low. The famous gulf fisheriea are 
not far off the Homosassa coast. These are of the mullet, the grouper, the red 
snapper and Spanish mackerel. There is no reason why the broad bays of the 
lower Homosassa should not be made a rendezvous of fishermen, and a station 
for curing and traflic in this line The sponge fisheries, too, are a local industry 
of the gulf coast. The green turtle fishery also is rapidly attaining prominence, 
and the ports at which this trafiic is carried on are on either side of the Homo- 
sassa — namely, at Cedar Keys and Key West. People are just beginning to 
realize what can be made of the oyster business in Florida. Their beds are 
innumeral)le all along the brackish lagoons and bayous of the lower Homosassa. 
Besides the immense traflic that might be carried on, almost every resident on the 
river could have his own oyster bed for his household supply. 

But it is the climate, above all, which is the chief attraction at Homosassa. 
It compares favorably v*^ith St. Augustine, undoubtedly the favorite seaside resort 
of Florida, Avhile it is free from the sudden damps and raw north winds which 
sometimes visit that charming place. Not only is the temperature here remark- 
ably equable and free from extremes — the frost point being rarely touched in 
December, and the summer temperature seldom standing above 90° — but the 
atmosphere is, to a surprising degree, free from moisture. It may seem strange, 
but the relative humidity of this region of the gulf coast in winter compares 
favorably with that of the high altitudes recommended as health resorts in our 
Northwestern States. The almost total absence of the " Spanish moss" from the 
trees shows that tliere is some peculiarity in tlie atmospheric conditions here, as 
compared with tliat of very many favorite places in the interior and on the east 
coast ; but from whatever combinations of the elements — of earth, waters, sea or 
air— it may have resulted, tlie fact is clear that the climate here is both deliglitful 
and salubrious. As to the other side of the picture — what are called the "outs" 
of the case — it is true that in the hammocks the mosquitoes and midges are very 
annoying in the rainy sununer season ; but they are not so troublesome by far. 



FLORIDA. 



223 




224 FLORIDA. 

either in their character or their numbers, as in similar situations on the east 
coast, and scarcely more so than in many famous places of resort in the North. 
The red-bug is the pest of the woods, but can easily be guarded against. From 
snakes and venomous insects this region seems to have peculiar exemption. Such 
few as there are here disappear at the first approach of cold, and do not emerge 
until hot weather comes on. They are rarely seen from October to IMa}^ It is in 
the summer season, of course, that one encounters the special ills of a semi- 
tropical climate. The gulf coast of Hernando has long been celebrated for its 
comparative healthfulness, and it is a familiar sight to find families from the 
interior camping for the summer on the banks and islands of the Hor.iosassa. 
Still, it is undoubtedly true that the Northerner who becomes a permanent resi- 
dent anywl:ere in South Florida sliould exercise nuich care at first if he would 
avoid a disngreeal)le initiation into so unaccustomed surroundings. But with 
anything like reasonable prudence, a smiling earth, comfortal^le temperature, 
bright sun and pr.re air, inviting to a life out of doors all the year round, 
cannot fail to furnish good assurance of health. 

The exceptional attractions of this region have induced a number of gentle- 
men, representing all sections of the country, to unite their elforts to open these 
rich resources to their appropriate uses. They have purchased some ten or twelve 
thousand acres of choice and selected lands along the whole course of the Homo- 
sassa River, including all the Yulee estate, and they are now expending large 
sums in improving these natural advantages, so as to make them available for 
visitors or settlers. A careful topographical survey has been made, the lands 
lotted and mapped, avenues and parks laid out, and works are now going on to 
bring to the best effect every natural point of interest or advantage. The pro- 
prietors will invite gentlemen to erect villas along tlie picturesque banks of the 
river; they will provide steam launches and pleasure boats, and open shady walks 
and drives paved with Miiite shells from the gulf beaches, leading to the points of 
most interest and beauty ; they will reserve for the prc:ent the beautiful lathloe 
Island, for the purpose of making it a tropical garden, where the flowers and 
fruit-bearing trees and rarest vines and shrubs of the gulf coasts will be gathered 
as a tj'pe of that Mediterranean loveliness. The fertile lands most suited for 
general agriculture will be opened to settlers at prices that will be within the 
means of all. The abundance of valuable woods, such as the live oak, magnolia, 
red bay, red cedar and palmetto, will invite to profitable industries in wood- 
working, such as fine finish for houses, boat l)uilding, cabinet and furniture 
making, &c. There is also demand even now for workmen at various trades, 
such as coopers, wheelwrights, blacksmiths and carpenters. There are many 
situations here peculiarly suited to the cultivation of the lemon, the guava, the 
pineapple and other very j^rofitable fruits. Horticulture in Florida is in its 
iufanc}'. The capabilities of such soil and climate as characterize the Homosassa 
region can only be dreamed of by one accustomed to other climes who sees how 
prodigal nature is of her returns for such rude attentions as are paid to her here. 
This gulf coast is destined to be the early garden of the United States. 

The means of communication and transportation which have so long been 
desired are now about to be made ample. The old familiar route from Cedar Keys 
by the gulf and river will be reopened. The Silver Springs, Ocala and Gulf Rail- 
road is vigorously advancing by way of Blue Spring and Crystal River, and it is 
believed will reach Homosassa in the course of the winter of I880-86. The 
Florida Southern Radroad is already at Brooksville, on the southern side of 
Homosassa, about 20 miles away, and the project is now under consideration of 
briuLcing it through to the river this winter. Meantime, a comfortable stage line 
will be run from Brooksville to Homosassa, connecting with the trains of the 



FLORIDA. 



225 



Florida Southern, and it is quite probable that another line will rua between 
Homosassa and Blue Spring, on the north. 

In anticipation of these openings, a hotel, with the best of accommodations, 
is to be erected by the Homosassa Company in season for the visitors who will 
seek this favorable opportunity for recreation, investment or permanent settle- 
ment. Indeed, the numerous applications on all these scores already received 
abundantly ensure the success of this enterprise. 



ALABAMA. 



This State has been brought into very prominent notice by its enormous coal 
and iron-ore deposits, and is receiving the attention of manufacturers and 
investors probably to a greater extent tlian any other Southern State. 

Alabama is situated between the 85th and 89th degrees of west longitude, 
and the 31st and 35th parallels of north latitude. The total area is estimated to 
be 52,250 square miles, and the total land surface 51,540 square miles. The 
population of the State, according to the census of 1880, was 1,262,344, of which 
661,986 were white and 600,358 colored; 1,252,694 native born and 9,650 foreign. 

In the general description of the State I have drawn largely upon the Report 
of the Tenth Census. 

Surface Contouk. — ^^Leaving out of account the minor irregularities, the 
surface of the State may be considered as an undulating plain, whose mean eleva- 
tion above sea-level cannot be nmch less than 600 feet. Toward the north and 
east the surfoce rises above this level, and toward the south and west it sinks 
below it. The arc of a circle, wutli Chattanooga as a center, described from the 
northwestern corner of the State around to the Chattahoochee River at Columbus, 
would include the area whose general elevation is above 600 feet. The axis of 
this elevation, which is the southern terminus of the great Apalachian mountain 
chain, runs northeast and southwest, and the altitude increases toward the north- 
east. There is thus a general slope away from this elevated region toward all 
points of the comi)ass from southeast around to northwest. The mountains of 
the State rest upon this high land, and often reach an elevation above it of 1,200 
or 1,500 feet, or above sea-level of 2,000 or 2,500 feet. 

The rest of the State outside of the area above mentioned, and whose general 
altitude is less than 600 feet, has a slope south and southwest toward the Gulf of 
Mexico and the Mississippi Valley. Along this slope the streams have excavated 
their channels and produced the various topographical features, none of which 
are due to elevation above the general surface. 

RrvER Systems. — There are, in the most general terms, two things which 
have determined the drainage system of Alabama. These are, first, the slopes 
toward the northwest and the southeast, away from the axis of elevation above 
spoken of; and, second, the more general slope of the surface of the State, taken 
as a whole, southwest toward the axis of the Mississippi Valley. An inspection 
of the map will show that the latter cause has greatly outweighed the former in 
fixing the direction of the watercourses, with the result of giving a general south- 
west direction to the whole drainage system of the State, with the single exception 
of that of the Tennessee River. In the northeastern part of the State the north- 
east and southwest direction of the valleys and ridges has also been largely 
instrumental in turning southwestward (down the valleys) the waters whose 
natural fall is southeastward at right angles to the axis of elevation of this 
mountainous region. 



ALABAMA. 227 

Tennessee River. — Looking beyond the limits of the State northeastwardly, 
we find the Blue Ridge, of which the elevated country in Alabama is but a part, 
acting as a water-shed between tlie Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. The 
drainage slopes are therefore toward the northwest and the southeast. At the 
northwestern foot of this water-shed, in North Carolina, are the headwaters of 
the Tennessee River. Its natural northwesterly flow is interfered with by tlie 
topographical features of the country, the most formidable of which, according to 
Professor Saflbrd, is the great Cumberland table-land. Parallel with this the river 
flows through a large part of Tennessee, and, cutting through a detached part of 
the Cumberland range at Chattanooga, enters the Sequatchie Valley, which it 
follows to Guntersville, in Alabaraa, where it cuts through the rest of the Cum- 
berland range, and flows thence down the nortliwesterly slope to its confluence 
with the Mississippi River. The Tennessee is thus exceptional among the rivers 
of Alabama. 

Tlie Gliattahoocliee. — This is a boundary stream, and is but slightly related to 
Alabama, as its headwaters are principally in Georgia. Its tributary streams on 
the Alabama side are mostl}^ short and insignificant. 

Tlce Tallapoosa., Coosa., Alabaina, Warrior and Lower Tombighee Rivers have 
many things in common. They all have their headwaters in the elevated region 
above alluded to, and all flow south and southwest into the Gulf of IMexico. In 
their upper parts, with the exception of the Tombigbee, their flow is alternately 
southwest down one of the valleys spoken of, and then south across a ridge to 
resume their southwestern courses. Where they leave that elevated region (which 
is in general formed of the tough and hard rocks of the older formations) and 
pass into the territory formed by the newer and softer rocks, there appear the 
cascades which form the first obstructions to navigation. These falls or rapids 
are s,een at Columbus (Georgia), Tallahassee, Wetumpka, Centerville, Tuscaloosa 
and Muscle Shoals, on the principal rivers, and at corresponding localities on the 
smaller streams. 

The Coosa River, from Rome, Georgia, down to Greensport, Alabama, flows 
in general along the strike of the rocks, and has no serious obstructions. Below 
Greensport it turns across these rocks, and rapids are formed, which alternate 
with stretches of open, smooth waters down to Wetnmpka, where the last falls are 
situated. This river has thus two navigable sections separated by nearly 200 miles 
of alternating cascades and pools. None of the other rivers in this part of the 
State are navigable above the lower falls. 

Tlie Choctawhatclde and Conecuh Rivers, with their tributaries, Pea River, 
Patsaliga, Sepulga, etc., are all turned southward by a prominent topographical 
feat'ire known as Chunnenugga Ridge, which divides the waters flowing north- 
westward into the Tallapoosa and Alabama Rivers from those flowing southward 
by various channels into the Gulf It will be seen that their general direction is 
west of south, as determined by the general slope of the lower portion of the State. 

Mountains and Table-lands. — The mountainous region of the State is 
confined to the northeastern quarter, as before defined, and the higher portions 
lie in the eastern half of this area. The Valley of the Coosa, from the State line 
down to the southern line of Shelb}- and Talladega Counties, divides this region 
into parts which have very different characters. Southeast of this Valley are 
some of the highest lands of the State, and the height of the mountains decreases, 
as a rule, going southeast. In all this region the summits of the mountains are 
irregular, and sometimes sharj) crested, from the outcropping edges of the gener- 
ally highly-inclined strata. Northwest of the Coosa Valley the mountains are 
generally level on to]>, forming table-lands 10 to 15 miles broad, separated by long 
and narrow valleys. Beyond the Tennessee River these table-lands are cut by 



228 ALABAMA. 

erosion into a number of detached peaks, each with a level or nearlj' level top. 
These peaks overlook the valleys in steep escarpments which, especially in the 
northeast, often attain truly mountainous proportions. 

In the lower part of the State there are no elevations which at all deserve the 
name of mountains, and the highest hills of this region are due solely to erosion— 
the wasting of the softer rocks by the action of water. 

Valleys. — Many of the valleys of the elevated region show a close depend- 
ence upon the geological structure; and while they arc all due to erosion, their 
position has been in most cases, if not in all, determined by the relative positions 
of the outcropping edges of the strata of different degrees of hardness. 

All the valleys in the mountainous region of the State, like the mountain 
ranges themselves, have a northeast and southwest direction. The most important 
of these valleys in many respects is that of the Coosa, which is the southern end 
of a series of vallej^s extending from New York to Alabama, and known in New 
York as the Valley of the Hudson, in Pennsylvania as the Kittatinny or Cumber- 
land Valley, in Virginia as the Great Valley, in Tennessee as the Valley of East 
Tennessee, and in Alabama, as we have just seen, as the Coosa Valley. The 
several outliers of this valley, which separate the parts of the table-lands and 
coal-fields, belong to the same general system. 

The sandstones which form the capping of the mountain plateaus rest upon 
softer strata of shales and limestones, and the dip of all the strata is at a gentle 
angle toward the south or southwest, while the river cuts across at nearly right 
angles. These are the conditions under which escarpments are formed, such as 
make the southern border of the Tennessee Valley across the State. 

In the lower part of the State, the valleys, like the hills, have very little 
relation to the geological structure, except in the case of the Prairie Region* 
which may be considered as a wide valley, since it is many feet below the hills 
that border it on the north and south. 

Climate. — The most potent influences which determine climate are latitude 
or distance from the equator, elevation above tide and configuration of mountain 
chains, proximity to the sea and the direction of the prevailing winds. In all 
these particulars the position of Alabama is favorable for a temperate and uniform 
climate. The geographical position and the mean elevation of the State have 
already been subjects of discussion. 

Winds. — The prevailing winds during the autumn and winter months are 
from the northeast and northwest; during the spring and summer, from the 
southeast; and for the whole year, from the southeast and south, but the yearly 
mean directions are nearly evenly balanced. 

Temperature. — Extremes of temperature are comparatively rare, and the 
extremes of heat during the summer months are especially moderated by the 
tempering winds from the Gulf of Mexico. In those parts of the State most 
remote from the gulf, their elevation above sea-level secures immunity from 
excessive heat. The mean annual temperature of the State is about 64.58° F. 
The means for the seasons are as follows: Spring, 03.9°; summer, 79.5°; autumn, 
645°; winter, 50.4°. The maxima and minima of temperature fall, almost without 
exception, in the months of July and January, respectively. 

In the lower part of the State, below the latitude of Montgomery, the mean 
temperature for the winter and for the year are nearly normal— that is, the lines 
of equal temperature run across the State from east to west, approximately 
l)arallel to the lines of latitude, the temperature depending thus almost exclu- 
sively upon the latitude. Above Montgomery, however, two things interfere with 
this regularity, viz : 1. The cooling influence of the mountains, which has the 
effect of deflecting the isothermals southward. 2. The heating ii-,flueiue of wide 



ALABAMA. 239 

liver valleys like those of the Coosa, Warrior and Tennessee, that are sunk in these 
highlands. By this cause these lines are carried northward of their normal position. 
Witli tlicse general principles in view, the distribution of the temperature will 
1)6 readily understood. 

The line of mean annual temperature of 08° F. crosses the State just south of 
Mobile; that of 64° just above Montgomery, curving, however, soutliward from 
Montgomery to Eufaula. The line of 60° follows approximately the curve spoken 
of as running from Columbus, Georgia, around to the northwestern corner of tlie 
State — that is, it follows the borders of the elevated or mountainous region, being, 
however, carried northward by the Coosa and the Warrior Rivers, and eastward 
by the Tennessee. The line of 56° is confined to the northeastern corner of the 
State, but is brought far to the south by the mountain plateau l3'ing between the 
Coosa and the Tennessee Rivers. 

The case is similar with the lines of equal temperature for the winter. That 
of 52° runs nearly parallel with the 81st degree of latitude; that of 48° has its 
normal course through Selma and Montgomery, but is carried by the Coosa River 
as high up as llie crossing of the Selma, Rome and Dalton Railroad at Coosa 
Bridge; and that of 44° follows the margin of the mountainous region, except 
where it is carried by the Coosa River above Talladega, and by the Tennessee 
River eastward nearly to Decatur. The line of 40° includes only the northeastern 
corner of the State, to Miiich it is crowded by the Coosa and the Tennessee Rivers. 

The lines of equal temperature for the summer show much greater irregu- 
larity, caused apparently by the preponderating influence of the river valleys. 
Thus the Ime of 80° runs diagonally from Tallahassee, in Florida, up to Tusca- 
loosa, by reason of the Alabama, Tombigbee and Warrior Rivers. The line of 78° 
curves, like some of those above mentioned, around the border of the mountainous 
region, being considerably indented by the Coosa and Warrior Rivers, while it 
follows the valley of the Tennessee River through the whole of Northern 
Alabama into the State of Tennessee beyond Chattanooga 

In the latitude of Montgomery the last frost occurs, as a rule, between the 5th 
and the 25th of April, and where the last frost is recorded in INIarch the records 
show that its actual formation in April was prevcnied by unfavorable conditions, 
such as cloudy weather or brisk winds. The first frosts occur usually between 
the 10th and the 25th of October. When the first frost falls in Xovember, the 
records always show that some time in October the temperature was sufficiently 
low for frost, the actual formation of which M^as prevented by the unfavorable 
conditions above mentioned. 

The influence of topography upon the formation of frost is clearly seen in 
those parts of the State where the variations in level are considerable ; for though 
both the mountains and the valleys are exposed to the same conditions, and radia- 
tion from each goes on at the same rate, the effects of the radiation will be felt in 
dificrent degrees. As the air is cooled it becomes more dense, and in consequence 
flows doAvn the slopes to the lower levels, where it accumulates. The elevated 
lands are thus never exposed to the full intensity of frosts, for their position 
aflbrds a ready way for the escape of the cooled air, which flows down the slopes 
as fast as formed, and the reduction of temperature is in this way greatly retarded. 

On the other hand, the valleys and lowlands not only retain all the cold air 
caused by their own radiation, but serve also as reservoirs for the cold air 
descending from the adjoining heights. The conditions for frost formation are 
thus greatly increased, and in a degree are proportional to the narrowness of the 
valley and the height of the adjacent hills. 

Hainfall. — The supply of moisture for the rainfall of the Southern States 
comes mainly from tlie Gulf of Mexico, the densest annual precipitation of 60 



230 ALABAMA. 

inches and upward being over tlie region of the delta of the Mississippi River 
and along the coasts of Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and "Western Florida 
An area of heavy annual rainfall, 50 inches and upward, spreads thence, with 
gradually diminishnig amount, northeastward, including Louisiana, Southwestern 
Arkansas, Western Tennessee, the whole of Mississippi and Alabama, North- 
western Georgia, and parts of Middle, Western and Southern Florida. Along the 
eastern coasts of Florida, Georgia, and South and North Carolina the influence of 
the Atlantic Ocean is seen in the heavy precipitate of from 55 to (30 inches which 
falls there. 

The distribution of the rainfall in Alabama for the year, and for the winter 
and summer seasons, is about as follows : 

An annual precipitate of 5G inches and upward ftiUs within a belt narrowest 
in the middle and widening out at both ends, and crossing the State diagonally 
from the southwestern to the northeastern corner. In the lower part of this belt 
an area including Mobile and Baldwin and parts of Washington, Clarke, Monroe, 
Wilcox, Dallas, Lowndes, Butler, Conecuh and Escambia Counties receives an 
annual rainfall of 63 inches and upward, reaching a maximum of 64 inches at 
Mount Vernon. In the extreme northwestern corner of the State is another small 
area Avhose annual rainfall is above 56 inches. Between these two areas the rain- 
fell is less, falling below 50 inches in the central part. Eastward of the main belt 
the amount of annual rainftdl decreases, being between 44 and 56 inches over the 
southeastern part of the State, except in two small areas in Lee and Chambers 
and in Henry Counties, where it ranges between 40 and 44 inches. 

During the winter months (December, January and February) we find the 
area of maximum rainfall running along the western border of the State within 
30 miles of the Mississippi line, except where a branch is thrown off, including 
parts of Dallas, Wilcox, Lowndes, Montgomery, Butler, Crenshaw, Pike and 
Bullock Counties, and another deflection tow^ard the east in the Tennessee Valley, 
including parts of Lawrence, Limestone and Madison Counties. Over the rest of 
the State the winter rainfall is between 12 and 16 inches, except in a small area in 
the western part of Sumter County and a strip along the eastern border of the 
State below Chambers County, including parts of Chambers, Lee, Macon, Bullock, 
Barbour, Dale, Geneva, and all of Henry and Russell Counties, where it tails 
below 12 inches. 

During the summer months (June, July and August) the greatest amount of 
rain falls south of a line running from the southwestern part of Choctaw County 
to the upper line of Dallas, and thence southeastward to the southeastern corner 
of the State, in Henry County. Within the area thus outlined the rainfall is 14 
inches and upward, increasing to 18 inches and more in jMobile, Baldwin, Wash- 
ington, Clarke, Monroe, Butler, Conecuh, Escambia and Covington Counties. 

North of the Tennessee River, in Lauderdale, Limestone, Madison and 
Jackson Counties, we find another area of large sununer rainfall, 14 inches and 
upward, and between the two, over perhaps two-thirds of tliC State, the summer 
rainfall falls below 14 inches. 

In the meteorological region of which Alabama forms a part there are 
commonly observed two maxima of precipitation, the principal one about the end 
of July, the secondary one early in December; also a principal minimum early in 
October, and a seccmdary one toward the end of April. The range in Alabama, 
however, is moderate, and the distribution tolerably uniform throughout the year, 
as may be seen from the following statement : 

The average rainfall of the State is 55.04 inches, and of tliis 13.86 inches foil 
during the spring months, 14 07 during the summer, 10.74 during the autumn, and 
16.37 during the winter. 



ALABAMA. ' 2S1 

The records kept at Montgomery show that no periods of wet weather 
extend over live days, and that when the periods are long heavy rainfalls are 
exceptional. During the months of March, April and May thunder-storms are 
not unusual, and the quantity of rain which then falls is sometimes great. These 
storms come mostly from westerly directions, from southwest around to nortii- 
west, but most often from the southwest. The strong winds with which they are 
usually accompanied, sometimes reach the force of hurricanes or tornadoes, which 
sweep over the country in a narrow track, usually of less than a mile in width. 
The tornadoes come almost without exception from the southwest, the wind 
having a gyratory motion, as is shown by the positions of the prostrated trees. 

Snow falls occasionally in the months of January and February. In the 
lower counties of the State it is extremely rare, but northward there is usually at 
least one considerable snowfall during the winter. 

For convenience of description the State may be divided into three sections — 
Northern, Middle and Southern, diflering in their main characteristics. 

The Zvliddle Division, having an area of about 10,000 square miles, embraces 
the following counties and parts of counties : Ail of Cleburne, Calhoun, Saint 
Clair, Shelby, Talladega, Clay, Randolph, Chambers and Coosa, narrow belts 
through Jackson, Marsliall, De Kalb and Blount, southern Cherokee, most of 
Etowah, southeastern Jefferson, a small strip along the southeastern edge of 
Tuscaloosa, northern Bibb, eastern half of Chilton, southern Elmore, Tallapoosa 
and Lee. 

The Northern Division adjoins the Middle Division on the northwest. Its 
area is about 9,700 square miles, and embraces the following counties and parts of 
counties: All of Lawrence, Winston, Walker, Cullman, Morgan, Limestone and 
Madison, and parts of De Kalb, Cherokee, EtoWah, Jackson, Marshall, Blount, 
Jefferson, Tuscaloosa, Fayette, Marion, Franklin, Colbert and Lauderdale. 

The Southern Division includes all that part of the State south and west of 
the limits of the Middle and Northern Divisions, and has an area of about 32,000 
square miles. It embraces the counties of Pickens, Greene, Hale, Sumter, Choc- 
taw, Marengo, Dallas, Perry, Autaga, Lowndes, Montgomery, Macon, Bullock, 
.Russell, Barbour, Pike, Crenshaw, Butler, Wilcox, Monroe, Clarke, Washington, 
Mobile, Baldwin, Escambia, Conecuh, Covington, Geneva, Coffee, Dale and Henry, 
as well as the whole or parts of Lauderdale, Colbert, Franklin, Marion, Lamar, 
Fayette, Tuscaloosa, Bibb, Chilton, Elmore, Tallapoosa and Lee. 

GEOLOGICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL FEATURES. 

Middle Division.— 1. The Metamorphic Region, a part of the great Apala- 
chian chain, including some of the most elevated land in the State in the 
counties of Cleburne, Randolph, Chambers, Lee, Macon, Tallapoosa, Clay, Coosa, 
Elmore and Chilton, and comprising an area of 4,42) square miles. The rocks of 
this region are the altered and crystalized sediments either of Silurian or preceding 
ages, and exhibit the greatest diversity, both in their chemical composition, in 
their physical characters, and in the nature of the topography and the soils to 
which they give rise. There are all gradations between the hard, almost inde- 
structible quartzites to the easilj^-eroded marble; from the warm, fertile, and 
undulating granitic and gneissic land to the much broken, often sterile tracts 
formed by mica slates and other highly siliceous rocks. With the varying compo- 
sition of the rocks come varying degrees of resistance to decay and eroism, and 
hence the great variety in the scenery of this region, where high and almost 
mountainous ridges alternate with rolling and sometimes rugged lowlands and 
valleys. In some parts the strata have undergone complete disintegration in place 



232 ALABAMA. 

and have been converted into great masses of stratified clays, interlaminated with 
seams of quartz, which, gradually broken down, cover the ground with their 
angular fragments. 

2. The Coosa Valley Region and its Outliers. — The wide valley, with prevail- 
ing calcareous rocks, which lies between the metamorphic area on the one hand 
and the southeastern edges of the Coosa and Cahaba coal-fields and Lookout 
mountain on the other has received the name above given from the Coosa River, 
which traverses its whole length. Geologically it is the continuation of the valley 
of eastern Tennessee; and, indeed, the valley of which this is a part, and which 
has been described by Professor Safford as a complex trough fluted with scores of 
smaller valleys and ridges, extends at least from the Susquehanna River to middle 
Alabama. 

The main valley of the Coosa, with the limits above given, is from 15 to 20 or 
30 miles wide, and is closely furrowed with parallel valleys and ridges, all trending 
northeast and southwest. This valley is embraced in the counties of Cherokee, 
Cleburne, Calhoun, Etowah, Saint Clair, Talladega, Shelby, Coosa and Chilton, 
and has an area, including its ridge lands, of 2,580 square miles. Several outljnng 
vallej^s, with \erj similar geological structure and soil varieties, may be most 
conveniently described in connection with it. 

These outliers are: 1. The Cahaba Valley, lying between the Coosa and 
Cahaba coal-fields, in the counties of Saint Clair, Jefl'erson, Shelby and Bibb, its 
area being 885 square miles. 2. Roup's and Jones' Valley, between the Cahaba 
and Warrior coal-fields, in Jefierson, Tuscaloosa and Bibb Counties; area, 285 
square miles. 3. Willis' Valley, between Lookout and Sand Mountains, in 
De Kalb, Etowah and Saint Clair Counties; area, 400 square miles. 4. Murphree's 
Valley, in Etowah and Blount Counties; area, 110 square miles. 5. The Blount 
springs, or Brown's Valley, which is a prolongation into Alabama of the Sequat- 
chie Valley of Tennessee, and runs through Jackson, Marshall and Blount 
Counties, having an area of about 400 square miles. 

The strata which appear at the surface and contribute to the formation of the 
soils in all these valleys are the representatives of all the geological formations 
occurring in Alabama, from the primordial or lowest division of the Lower 
Silurian up to the base of the Coal Measures. In the following statement is- 
given, in descending order, the names and geological positions of these strata, 
so far as their equivalence has been made out : 

Carboniferous 7. Coal Measures of the Warrior, Cahaba and Coosa fields. 

Sub-Carboniferous i ^- Upper Calcareous, mountain limestone. 

( 5. i^ower buiceous, siliceous group. 

Devonian 4. Black Shale. 

Upper Silurian 3. Clinton or Red Mountain group. 

f 2. Trenton and Chazy, shales and limestone. 

{e. Dolomite or magnesian limestone. 



Lower Silu;-ian i. Calciferous and Potsdam. \ ^- ^^^^^ (calcareous shales. 

^ ! I '^ Upper sandstone (calcareous sandstone.) 



I 



b. Potsdam sandstone proper. 

a. Semi-metamorphic shales and conglomerates. 



Northern Division. — 1. The Coal Measures Region^ including {a) The Coosa 
field, which embraces about 80 square miles in the northwestern part of Calhoun, 
about 150 square miles in Saint Clair, and about 235 square miles in Shelby 
County, makiug au aggregate of 415 square miles; the Cahaba field, w^hich 
includes about 50 square miles in Saint Clair, 100 in Jefl'erson, 160 in Shelby, and 
125 in Bibb Count}^ aggregating 435 square miles. In both these fields the strata, 
consisting of sandstones, conglomerates, shales, and coal beds, are tilted at consid- 
erable angles, and possessing varying degrees of resistance of disintegration and 
eroism, have been very unequally degratled. The main ridges and valleys have 
the general direction of northeast and southwest, corresponding to the outcrops 



ALABAMA. 233 

of the tilted Btrata ; but this uniformity is often greatly obscured, and in places 
is obliterated by the irregularities produced by the streams which traverse the 
fields across the outcrops. In the presence of these inequalities, produced by the 
folding or the tilting of the strata, these fields diff'er from the great Warrior field, 
where the topographical features have no such direct connection with the geologi- 
cal structure. It seems to be well established that the three coal-fields of Alabama 
were once continuous, and that they have been separated by folds (since denuded) 
and by faults, (b.) The Warrior Field, the name given to that part of tlie Coal 
Measures of Alabama which is drained by both forks of the Warrior River and 
their tributaries. This field may be divided into two parts : the plateau or table- 
land, and the Warrior basin proper. 

The Table-land. — It is characteristic of the table-lands or plateaus that the 
limestone beds, which underlie the capping of Coal Measures rocks, are above the 
general drainage level of the country. This arrangement of the two classes of 
strata determines in great measure the character of the scenery, for the removal 
by erosion of the more perishable limestones causes the undermining of the harder 
sandstones above, which from time to time break ofi* with vertical faces, forming 
clifls. In height the plateaus diminish continuously toward the southwest, passing 
gradually into the Warrior basin. In the State of Tennessee their elevation 
above the surrounding country varies from 8."J0 to 1,000 feet. In .Jackson and 
Madison Counties some of the spurs attain an equal height, but further southwest, 
in Morgan and Marshall, the elevation will not average more than 550, and in 
Cullman and Blount Counties not more than 300 feet, and near the Mississippi 
line they come down to the drainage level. The main body of the table-land is 
known as Sand Mountain, lying between the Sequatchie fold, or Brown's and 
Tennessee Valleys, on the northwest, and Wills' and Murphree's Valleys on the 
southeast, and include parts of De Kalb, Jackson, Marshall and Blount Counties. 
The highest parts of this table-land are to be found along its edges overlooking 
the valleys above mentioned, and there is a general slope both ways toward the 
center of the plateau, which thus becomes a shallow, elevated trough. 

Beyond Wills' Valley is Lookout Mountain, an outlier of Sand Mountain, 
and beyond Murphree's Valley (southeast) Blount Mountain, a spur of the main 
table land. All these parts have similar structure, and their elevated rims, adjoin- 
ing the valleys, are usually only slightlj'- indented by the watercourses, except 
where some large stream leaves the plateau, as in the cases of Little River, on 
Lookout, and Short Creek, on Sand Mountain. Northwest of the Tennessee 
River, however, the tributaries of that stream have cut the elevated lands belong- 
ing to this division into a number of more or less isolated peaks, some of which, 
especially in the northeastern part of the State, have still tlis capping of Coal 
Measures, which have been entirely removed fi'om many of those lying farthest 
toward the west. Overlooking the Tennessee Valley, in Lawrence and Franklin 
Counties, the elevated rim, which is locally called Sand Mountain, is the border of 
the Warrior basin, and will be considered along with it. 

Approximately^, the area of the elevated lands or plateaus as above limited 
would be about 1,690 square miles on Sand Mountain and its spur in Jackson, 
De Kalb, Marshall, Etowah, Morgan, Saint Clair and Blount Counties, about 290 
square miles on Lookout Mountain, in De Kalb, Ciierokee and Etowah, about 580 
square miles in the detached spurs of the Cumberland northwest of the Ten- 
nessee, in Jackson, Madison and Marshall, and to these might be added about half 
the area of Cullman County, whose measures partake of the characters of both 
the table-lands and of the basin, about 295 square miles; aggregating in all 2,855 
square miles. A not inconsiderable part of this area north of Tennessee is 
mountain slope, and is not strictly table-land. 



234 ALABAMA. 

The Warrior Basin. — Tliis, like the table-laud, is in general a trough, 
shallow and sloping from northeast to southwest, with sliglitly elevated rims next 
to the Tennessee Valley on the north and Jones' Valley on the south. As 
Brown's Valky divides the plateau, so its continuation south westward as a ridge 
divides the basin into two unequal parts. Southwest of the confluence of the two 
Warriors these two parts seem to come together in one common basin by the 
sinking away of the ridge which separates them higher up. 

The Warrior basin includes all of Walker and Winston and parts of Cullman, 
Morgan, Lawrence, Franklin, Marion, Lamar, Fayette, Tuscaloosa and Jefferson 
Counties, and will aggregate about 4,9.^5 square miles. The whole area of the War- 
rior field is thus estimated at about 7,810 square miles. The surface of the elevated 
border lands here included is comparatively level, though sufficiently undulating, 
and in places the streams have cut deep gorges into the hard sandstones and 
conglomerates. In the basin there is much more inequality of surface, and in the 
vicinity of streams the country is often extremely rough, although the water-sheds 
are seldom more than 250 or 300 feet above the general level of the streams. 
Along the edges of both table-land and basin the higher ilms are parts of folds of 
the strata, and are of sufficient height to determine the direction of the water- 
courses, and hence the nature of the topography. In the basin there are numerous 
undulations of the strata, but they are rarely of sufficient importance to affect the 
topography. 

2. TJie Tennessee Valley Region. — Under this head are included not only the 
immediate valley of the Tennessee River, but also the whole region in Alabama 
drained by its tributaries, except the anticlinal valley, down which the river flows 
in Jackson County, and the table-lands of De Kalb, the Cumberland spurs in 
Jackson, Madison and Marshall, already described, and the drift-belt in Franklin, 
Colbert and Lauderdale Counties. With these limits, therefore, this region will 
embrace an area on both sides of the Tennessee extending from the State line on 
the north to the Coal Measures of the Warrior field on the south. The average 
width of this drainage area from north to south is about 45 miles, and includes 
parts of Jackson, Marshall, Morgan, Lawrence, Franklin, Colbert and Lauderdale, 
and all of Limestone and part of Madison Counties, aggregating 4,530 square miles. 

The general features of this region are those of a plain 12 to 15 miles wide, 
the Tennessee Valley proper, through which the river flows on in its tortuous 
path, the valley being bounded both on the north and on the south by hilly, and 
in some places almost mountainous country, and the hills and the valley belonging 
to the same g(!ological age, the configuration of the whole area being the result of 
erosion during long geographical periods by waters whose present representatives 
are the Tennessee and its tributaries. 

The average elevation of the summits, which represent approximately the 
general level of the original land surf\ice, is in the eastern part of this region 
about 2,000 feet above the sea, and .there is a gradual slope westward, so that the 
summhs near the Mississippi line are not more than 900 or 1,000 feet above sea- 
level. The general surface of the lowlands exhibits a similar slope, the elevation 
at Huntsville being 612 feet, at Courtland 560 feet, and at Dickson 488 feet. The 
hilly country in the northern part of this area is known as the Barrens, and is a 
part of the great highland rim of Tennessee. 

South of the Barrens lies the valley proper of the Tennessee. The surface 
is almost level, the uniformity broken here and there by slight elevations, gener- 
ally covered with trees made up of fragments of chert. Throughout the whole 
area sink-holes and caves are common and almost characteristic. 

The southern border of the valley is made by the escarpment of the Warrior 
coal-field. Sand Mountain, as it is usually called, rising above the valley to a height 



ALABAMA. 235 

which will average, perhaps, 600 or 700 feet. Along the northern face of this 
escarpment, about half way, is a terrace or bench, which in the eastern part of 
Morgan County is very narrow, but widens going westward, and a considerable 
depression is formed between it and Sand Mountain. In Lawrence and Franklin 
Counties this depression is deepened into a valley with calcareous soils (Moultou 
and Russell's Valleys,) and the bench, now completely separated from Sand 
Mountain, forms a very conspicuous feature of the landscape, known as the Little 
Mountain range. These valleys have the same general characters as the Ten- 
nessee Valley, and are partly based on the same rocks. The Little Mountain 
range terminates toward the north with rather bold escarpments, but slopes more 
gently soutliward. 

The three divisions of the Tennessee drainage area in northern Alabama are 
the Barrens, the valley lands, and the Little Mountain range, and they divide the 
surface about as follows: Barrens, 910 square miles; valley lands, 2,480 square 
miles ; and Little Mountain range, 540 square miles. 

Leaving out of consideration the mountain spurs of the Cumberland range 
in Jackson and Madison, the anticlinal fold of the Sequatchie in Jackson, and the 
drift in Lauderdale, Colbert and Franklin, the surface rocks to which the soils of 
the Tennessee Valley owe their origin belong to a single formation, the sub- 
carboniferous, the subdivisions of which, as adopted by the State Geological 
Survey, are as follows: Upper: calcareous — mountain limestone, or Chester; 
lower : Siliceous — Saint Louis limestone and Keokuk. 

In addition to the above, the strata of the Devonian and the Upper Silurian 
formations are exposed along certain creeks in the northern part of tliis region, 
but their superficial extent is small, and their part in tlie formation of the soils 
insignificant. 

Southern Division. — The cretaceous and tertiary rocks which underlie this 
whole division are approximately horizontal in stratification, but have a slight dip 
toward the south and southwest. With the exception of part of the prairies, the 
whole area is covered with beds of drifted material which have been deposited 
upon an eroded surface of the older rocks. The drift-beds are, as a rule, very 
irregularly stratified. 

It may thus be inferred that the minor details of surface configuration and 
the soils are, to a certain extent, independent of the underlying older rocks, and 
are in great measure determined by these drifted materials. In these respects this 
division differs from the two preceding ones. But while it depends to so great an 
extent for its soils and topography upon a single formation, there is not in these 
the great monotony that might be looked for on this account. The drift itself is 
composed of materials which offer varying degrees of resistance to denudation, 
and considerable inequalities of surface result from this circumstance. In addi- 
tion to this, the older rocks had been greatly eroded before they were covered by 
the drift, so that the general contour of tiie country, as well as many of the most 
prominent topographical features in this division, are quite independent of the 
superficial drift-coating which determines so many of the minor details. 

The low trough of tlie Prairie Region, the rugged hills of the buhr-stone and 
the gently undulating surface of the Southern Pine Belt were features of the 
landscape before the deposition of the drift; and similarly with the soils the drift 
itself yields a number of varieties, which are still further increased by the modifi- • 
cations brought about by their intermixture with the disintegrated portions of the 
underlying country rocks. These rocks are referred to two principal formations, 
the cretaceous and the tertiary. 

Taken as a whole, the surface of the Southern Division has a general slope 
from the margin of the two divisions just described, outward— ^. e., west and 



236 ALABAMA. 

south toward the Mississippi basin aud the Gulf of Mexico. This general slope 
is interrupted by the trough of the Central Prairie Region, which is depressed 
many feet below the general level both north and south of it, and also on a limited 
scale by the trough of the flatwoods. South of the Prairie Belt there is a line of 
rocky hills made by the hard sandstones and claystones of the lower part of the 
tertiary formation, beyond which, toward the south, the country falls away very 
gradually and uniformly to the coast. 

AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. 

So much has been said about Alabama as an iron and coal-producing State, 
that its agricultural interests have, in a measure, been lost sight of. The State 
possesses many attractions for the farmer and stock-raiser. The soil is, of course, 
like that of all other sections, diversified. There are mountain ridges of sandy, 
flinty land useless for cultivation, but the land in the main will compare favorably 
with that of any other State, and in some sections the soil is remarkably produc- 
tive. The lands are cheap, but are increasing in value. The rapid development 
of the industrial interests of the State, and the increase in the manufacturing 
po])ulation, furnish a growing market for agricultural products The furnishing 
of farm supplies to the new manufacturing towns, such as Anniston, Birmingham 
and others, oflers an inviting field to the agriculturist. Cotton is a staple crop. 
The State in 1880 was fourth in the list of Cotton States, producing 699 054 bales. 
Corn, wheat, oats, rye, etc., are raised, and are receiving more attention than 
formerly. A surprising increase has been made in the last few years in the quan- 
tity of oats raised. According to the statistics of the United States Agricultural 
Department, there were raised in Alabama in 1875 840,000 bushels of oats, while 
in 1884 the yield reached 5,015,000 bushels. The yield of corn in 1875 was 
24,500,000 bushels, and in 1884 30,197,000 — an increase of nearly 25 i^er cent. 
There are areas of splendid grass-producing lands, and in connnon with other 
Southern States, Alabama is beginning to give attention to this important interest. 
The following from "A Pliysical Survey of Georgia, Alabama and MississipiDi," 
by Messrs. Campbell & R'^iffner, will be of interest : 

"The usual standard authorities deny the practicability of establishing a 
permanent dense sod in the Southern States, except in rare si:»ots wliere the 
ground is moist and shaded. Mr. C. L. Flint goes so far as to doubt the practica- 
bility of forming a close turf south of the latitude of Baltimore, forgetting 
Kentucky and the Valley of Virginia, where tliere are areas of sod equal to the 
best in England. We also found at Greenville, Winona, Starkeville and other 
points in Mississippi a grass sod wliich, for density and freedom from foreign 
growth, we have never seen surpassed. At all these places Bermuda grass consti- 
tuted the pi-incipal sod. The point to be regai'ded in the South is the selection of 
grasses adapted to that section, not to States farther north. Mr. Charles Mohr, of 
Mobile, a most competent observer, pul)lishes the statement that he has himself 
collected in South and Middle Alabama 182 species, belonging to 58 genera, of 
native grasses. He includes in the list the Bermuda and a few other imported 
grasses which have become naturalized. This Bermuda grass was an immense 
acquisition. It grows anywhere; bears any amount of drought and close pastur- 
ing; is very sweet and nutritious when young; contains 14 per cent, of albumi- 
noids, according to Dr. Ravenel's analysis; and on rich lands is reported to yield 
more hay than does timothy. The Bermuda grass will take fast hold in the most 
hopeless-looking gullies and in barren sands where no other grass will grow, and 
once lodged it holds on and spreads, even uuder hard pasturing. The Lespedeza 
is its only rival foi*' possession of the soil. 

" The K'.'iitucky blue-grass will cohabit with the Bermuda, and grows in the 
winter while the Bermuda is dormant. Lespedeza, orchard grass, Kentucky olue- 
grass, timothy and the panic-grasses do well, except when mowed or pastured 
closely in summer, in which event most of them are in danger of perishing. 
The Johnson grass is a prodigious grower, is perennial, and f^r all purposes is, 
perhaps, the most profitable grass. The indicatit)ns are that Georgia, Alabama 
and Mississippi can produce more good hay per acre than any Northern States of 



ALABAMA. 237 

the same area ; perhaps twice as much. The mild winters and wet springs, and 
the greater size of some of the Southern grasses, such as the Johnson, Guinea, 
Gamma, Lucerne, Munro, etc., render this probable. 

" The Lucerne, whicli does not succeed Avell in the Northern States or even 
in England, flourishes in these States, and, when sown on suitably prepared land, 
it defies drought. It thrives under the Southern sun here as it does in France 
and Italy. Each acre may be expected to yield five tons of hay in a season. The 
Gamma is another grass which grows with great luxuriance. The seed stock 
grows five to seven feet in height, and the leaves furnish an enormous quantity of 
palatable forage as nutritious as corn fodder. The crab-grass is a true summer 
grass which grows spontaneously in the cultivated fields and comes in when most 
needed. 

" Dr. Phares gives an account of a grass {Panicum arjrostaides) locally called 
Munro grass which is thought capable of yielding 15 tons of hay in a season. 
Mr. Munro, for whom it was named, reports a product of 23,870 pounds hay per 
acre in one season on his own land. It is not so vigorous farther north. 

" Clover, millet, timothy and other standard grasses may all be grown in this 
region. 

" The native grasses, which constitute the principal winter pasturage, far 
more than compensate for the suffering of the other grasses in summer. They 
may be so managed as to afford good pasture at all seasons, and to render neces- 
sary only a small provision of dry forage for winter use, thus giving to these 
States an immense advantage over those farther north. Mr. C. M. Howard says, 
in his book on " Grasses," that he has sold fat Ayrshire cattle which had never 
had a moutliful of feed except what they gathered for themselves in the fields. 

"The hay crop has proved exceedingly profitable to the few who have 
engaged in it, and the yield has never been surpassed." 

Stock raising is an industry that is coming into prominence. The State has 
some advantages that give to this interest large possibilities. The increase in the 
number of farm animals in the last ten years is shown by the following figures 
from the Agricultural Department of the United States : 

1875. 1885. INCREASE. 

Sheep 185,900 343.925 158,025 

Hogs 755,900 1,351,752 595,852 

Milch cows 168,200 282,465 114,265 

Oxen and other cattle 327,300 432,090 104,790 

Horses 104,400 120,924 16,524 

Mules 101,400 131.038 29,638 

Total 1,643,100 2,662,194 1,019,094 

A gratifying feature is the fact that while the number of animals has been 
increased, the breeds have also been improved. The State has now many fine 
stock farms, and the finest breeds of sheep, hogs and cattle are raised. 

The raising of vegetables and fruits is one of the most prominent and 
promising of the agricultural industries of the State, and is assuming very large 
proportions. The field is unlimited and the profits are large. All ordinary 
varieties of fruits are grown in abundance, and the qualitj^ cannot be surpassed. 
Oranges and some other tropical fruits are raised in the southern part of the 
State. These, liowever, Avill be referred to more specifically later on. 

SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. 

Middle Division. — 1. llie Metamorphic Region — At the surface a loam with 
not much appearance of stratification overlies the decayed slates to the deptli of 
several feet in valleys, but much less along the slopes and on the summits. Tliis 
loam forms the soils and subsoils, wliich are thus seen to be in most cases directly 
related to the underlying beds. 

The two principal soil varieties commonly recognized by the farmers are 
those which make the gray and the red lands respectively. Of each of these, 
liowever, there are numerous sub-varieties, exhibiting all grades of color and of 
fertility. The gray lands may be derived from feldspathic rocks, such as granite 
and gneiss, in which case they are often quite fertik% or from siliceous mica slates 



238 ALABAMA. 

or other quartzose rocks, when they may be almost barren. Similarly, the red 
lands, when derived from feldspathic rocks, such as hornblendic gneiss, etc., rank 
high in productiveness, while those resulting from the decay of certain mica or 
clay slates, bearing garnets or other ferruginous minerals, frequently lie at the 
other extreme. 

Of the true gray granitic (feldspathic) soils there is only a limited area in this 
State, but a belt of this kind of land passes through Rockford and Bradford, in 
Coosa County. It is seen again near Blake's Ferry, in Randolph, and near Louina, 
in the same county; then near Milltown, in Chambers County. Indeed, the 
granite itself, so far as it has yet been observed, passes everywhere, by insensible 
gradations, into a schistose or stratified rock, or into gneiss, and thus our granitic 
soils might more properly be classed as gneissic throughout. 

Of the two principal soil varieties above named, that of the red lands is 
derived from the decomposed hornblendic gneisses and slates, which in many 
places, where exposed in washes or gullies, are seen to be merely stratified clays, 
containing fragments more or less angular of the quartz veins or seams, which are 
nearly always interbedded with the other rocks of this region. This red soil (the 
color of which comes from the iron of the hornblende) is considered best adapted 
to the production of corn and other grains. Its natural growth consists of the 
various species of oaks (white, post, Spanish, red, and a few black-jacks,) hickory, 
poplar, and some short-leaf pine, especially where the red and gray soils overlap, 
making mulatto-colored soils. The top stratum of this soil, from 2 to 3 inches in 
depth, is often a dark chocolate-brown color, but below it becomes a brighter red, 
and at varying depths, from 10 to 15 feet, becomes a yellowish hard clay. Where 
the freshly decomposed rocks are seen the color is yellowish rather than red, the 
latter color being darker and more intense apparently the further removed the 
soil is from its original position and the more it is affected by the decay of the 
vegetable matter. When first cleared, these lands were thought to be the best in 
the country, and many fine ftirms are still found upon them. The majority of the 
farmers, now, however, seem to prefer the gray soil, as being more certain, more 
easily tilled, and even more fertile. The rect lands were the first to be cleared up 
by the original settlers, and most of the older farms and fine old country residen- 
ces are upon this kind of land. 

The gray soils result from the disintegration of gneisses and mica slates which 
contain comparatively little or no hornblende or other iron-bearing minerals. 
They are conunonly somewhat sandy, usually light-colored, gray to dark gray, 
sometimes nearly black, with very often, however, a decidedly reddish color 
similar to that of the hornblendic soils above described. These gray soils are 
easily tilled, are certain of crop even with moderately favorable seasons, and are 
better suited than the red to the culture of cotton. Below some three or four 
inches of dark gray sandy top soil there is usually a lighter colored but somewhat 
yellowish subsoil. The timber is much the same as that upon the red lands, viz: 
oaks and hickory, with a few short-leaf pines. 

Of these two soils, in proportion to the amount of insoluble matter, the gray 
is decidedly better in respect of potash, phosplioric acid and lime, and is pr()bal)ly 
more thrifty. The red soil is rather deficient in lime, but in retentiveness of 
moistuie it is superior to the other. Both are fairly good soils. 

Cotton, corn, wheat, oats, etc , are the chief crops of this region. There are 
localities where fine pasturage is afforded. 

2. JRcfjion of the Coosa and Outlying Frt^%s.— Classified according to color 
and general physical characters, the soils occuring in these valleys are either red 
or brown loams derived from the pure calcareous formations, or lighter colored to 
gray siliceous soils, usually filled with angular, fiinty gravel, and resting on a 



ALABAMA. 239 

yellowish clayey subsoil derived from cherty limestones of the dolomite and of 
the sub-carboniferous; or the light sandy loams which result from the disintegra- 
tion of sandstones such as make up the greater part of the Potsdam proper, the 
upper sandstone and the Coal Measures. 

Some of the best farming lands in the State are in these valleys in Cherokee, 
Calhoun and Talladega Counties and elsewhere. The yield of cotton is large; 
corn and wheat produce heavy crops, and all the products of the farm can be 
profitably cultivated. A strip through Talladega and Calhoun Counties in the 
Coosa Valley is (me of the best cotton-producing sections in the State— the other 
two areas of largest production being the Tennessee Valley, and the "Cotton 
Belt " in the Southern Division. The latter produces over half the cotton raised 
in the State. There are some line grazing lands in this region, and increased 
attention is being given to stock raising. 

Northern Division.— The lands of this division, in their general character- 
istics, resemble those of the Middle Division. In the Valley of the Tennessee 
there are soils exceedingly fertile and capable of producing a great variety of 
crops. The yields of corn, wlieat, oats, etc., are large. One of the three principal 
cotton-producing areas in the State is in this division— the Tennessee Valley. 
The valley lands are nearly level or gently undulating, but in the gaps between 
the mountain spurs the surface is more broken. On account of the fertile nature 
of the soil, most of these lands are cleared and under cultivation. 

Southern Division. — This includes all that portion of the State south and 
west of the Middle and Northern Divisions— about three-fifths of the whole area. 
The northern part of this division, which embraces the northwestern counties of 
the State, partakes largely of the character of the Middle and Northern Divisions. 
The lands are well adapted to cotton and corn, and produce also good crops of 
the usual farm products. Oats and potatoes are raised in considerable quantities. 
There are some high table-lands that furnish superior farming lands, desnable 
on account both of the natural fertility of the soil and of their favorable position 
with respect to drainage, etc. The " Cotton Belt" of the State is included in this 
division, and embraces parts of the following counties : Pickens, Green, Sumter, 
Marengo, Hale, Perry, Dallas, Autaga, Lowndes, Montgomery, Macon, Bullock, 
Russell and Barbour. The width of this belt across the State is about 75 miles. 
It includes what is known as the Prairie Region, a belt running somewhat diago- 
nally across the State, having a width of some 30 miles near the Mississippi line, 
but narrowing down toward the east, and almost disappearing in Russell County, 
on the eastern border of the State. While under this name are included all those 
parts of Central Alabama where the prairies occur, only a part, and not the 
largest part, of the area is of the genuine prairie character. As here used, the 
term " prairie " does not always mean a timberless region, but refers rather to the 
character of the soil, which is black or dark gray in color— a stiff soil of exceed- 
ing fertility and lasting productiveness. Sixty per cent, of the cotton produced 
in the State is raised in this Cotton Belt. 

Truck farming is an industry of great and growing importance. In the 
extreme southern part of the State, more especially the territory contiguous to 
Mobile, this business is rapidly developing. The soil in the vicinity of Mobile is 
mostly a sandy loam with a clay subsoil. Naturally the lands are not rich, but 
with the use of fertilizers they produce surprising yields. Cabbages, tomatoes, 
potatoes, peas and strawberries are the principal crops. The transportation 
facilities are such as to furnish rapid shipment to Northern and AVestern cities, 
wiiich will afford a market for all that can be raised. Coming into market very 
early in the season, the prices realized yield enormous profits. Considerable atten- 
tion is being given to the growing of peaches- a fruit said to be as profitable as 



240 ALABAMA. 

the orange. The southern and central portions of the (State are peculiarly adapted 
to the jieach. The fruit raised here has a delicious flavor, and coming to maturity 
so much earlier tluin the peaches grown in Maryland and Delaware, they bring 
nuich higher i)rices. The Le Conte j^ear does well in Alabama. Fortunes have 
been made in Southern Georgia raising this fruit, and it may be as profitably 
cultivated in the lower counties of Alabama. Oranges are grown largely in 
Mobile and Baldwin Counties. With care the}^ may be cultivated successfully 
and prontabl}^ but they are not as safe as fruits less susceptible to frost, though 
there are some fine groves yielding handsome incomes. Figs are extensively 
grown. They require little cultivation and produce large yields. 

MINERAL RESOURCES. 

Tlie piincipal minerals are iron ore, coal, gold, copper, manganese, mica, 
asbestos, corundum, graphite, limestone, granite, marble. None of these receive 
very marked attention except coal and iron ore. These have only been mined to 
an)"" extent within the last few yeai-s, but within that time the business has grown 
to enormous proportions. ., . . , 

uOALi. 

Not only is the quantity of easily and cheaply-mined coal in Alabama such as 
to render the supply practically inexhaustible, but the quality of a large portion 
of it is unsurpassed. In Williams' " Mineral Resources of the United States," an 
official publication of the Department of the Interior, it is said of some Alabama 
coal tliat it is "superior to any coal in the United States as a grate coal, and fully 
equal to English cannel coal." While the wonderful increase in the amount of 
coal mined in Alabama is in part due to the mcreasing general demand for it, the 
main cause has been the erection of a large number of pig-iron furnaces in which 
coal is used. A very large part of the coal now mined in Alabama is made into 
coke for use in these furnaces, and the increase in the number of furnaces shortly 
to be made by the erection of half a dozen or so new ones will necessitate a large 
increase in coal production. In 1870 Alabama mined only 11,000 tons of coal, 
and in 1880 the output reached only 340,000 tons. It is since the latter year that 
the mining interests of Alabama have shown such rapid progress — the amount of 
coal mined in 1883 reaching 1,000,000 tons, which in 1884 Avas doubled, the yield 
for that year being 2,000,000 tons. The production of coal in Alabama, according 
to Saward's " Tlie Coal Trade," a standard authority, has been as follow^s : 

tons. tons, 

j374 40,889 1880 340,000 

J875 75.806 I88I 400,000 

1876 102,640 1882 800,000 

1877 172,182 1883 1,000,000 

1878 194,268 1884 2,000,000 

1879 290,000 

Mr. R. P. Porter, a member of the late United States Tariff Commission, after 
a persona] examination of tlie coal interests of Alabama, predicts that in ten years 
that State will be mining coal at the rate of 10,000,000 tons a year, and in view of 
what has already been done, this does not appear by any means improbable. The 
increase in iron making in Alabama in the next few years will necessitate a 
corresponding increase in coal production. Moreover, aside from the furnace 
consumi)tion, there is a steadily increasing demand for Alabama coal for general 
use, large quantities of it going to New Orleans, Galveston and elsewhere. The 
eflforts to make ]\Iobile a great coal port for shipping Alabama coal to foreign 
markets as well as to coastwise ports will no doubt be successful in the near 
future, and thus another opening will be made for the extension of the demand 
for this coal. 

The following is from a pamphlet entitled "The Coal Fields of Alabama," by 
Gen J. W. Burke, of Mobile : 



ALABAMA. 241 

"The productive area of the coal fields of Alabama is estimated at 5,350 
square mdes. Of this the Coosa field has 150, the Cahaba 200, and the Warrior 
5,000 square miles. These divisions take their names from the respective rivers — 
Wari-ior, Cahaba and Coosa, which flow through them. From these streams 
branch out in all directions innumerable creeks, subdividing the Coal Measures, 
and aflording, especially in the case of the Warrior, many miles of deep water 
nine months in the year, thus enabling the coal to be mined far up in the interior 
and floated to the maiji stream. Human skill could not have devised a more 
perfect system of internal canals or auxiliary watercourses than nature has pro- 
vided on the Warrior. Branching off in all directions, those creeks cut their way 
through the Measures, and in many cases flow over solid beds of coal. During 
the summer months this river is not navigable above Tuscaloosa. In fact, it is 
almost at the very verge of the Coal Measures in Tuscaloosa that the oljstructions 
to navigation commence, caused by the structure of the Coal Measures themselves. 
At this point the river changes its entire character, forming during low water a 
series of lakes and tails over rocky ledges which completely impede navigation.' 
In very high stages of the Warrior, and before the construction of railroads, 
flatboats were successfully carried to Mobile, but the dangerous passage over the 
shoals and the losses incurred caused the ultimate abandonment of that means of 
ti-ansportation, and at the present time the agricultural produce of the Warrior 
Country is carried from 30 to 45 miles to the Louisville and Nashville Railroad at 
Birmingham, and the business of conveying coal by river entirely suspended. 

"The great apparent fact connected Avith these Alabama coal fields is that, 
taking into consideration their geographical position, their physical characteristics, 
the superior quality of their product, and the cheapness with which they may be 
mined and transported, they constitute the only source of supply in the entire 
world which can successfully compete with British coal in the gulf, West Indies 
South America, and, on the completion of the Panama Canal, on the entire 
Pacific coast." 

IRON OEE. 

Under this head I cannot do better than quote the following on the " Iron 
Ore and Limestone Regions " from " A Physical Survey in Georgia, Alabama and 
Mississippi," by Messrs. John L. Campbell, Professor of Chemistry and Geology 
in the Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Va., and W. H. Rnfl'ner, an 
eminent geologist of Lexington, Va.: 

"1. The Archaean Region, extending from Atlanta, Ga., to the margin of 
Choccolocco Valley, in Alabama, is that in which the specular and magnetic ores 
are most commonly found. 

''^^Pyrite is found in large quantities among the metamorphic rocks. 

"2. Choccolocco Valley claims attention as a distinct ore region. It is 
traversed by Choccolocco Creek, and is bounded on the southeast by the meta- 
morphic ridge to which Prof. Tuomey, in his second report, gave the name 
'Choccolocco Mountain'— a prolongation of the Blue Ridge of Viririnia, and on 
the northwest by the Ladiga range, which separates it from the little valley in 
which Anniston is situated. The Georgia Pacific Railway enters Choccolocco 
Valley at the western terminus of the Davisville Tunnel, 86 miles west of Atlanta 
The valley is here about three or four miles wide, and is underlaid by limestones 
slates and sandstones of Lower Silurian age. The railway traverses this valley from 
the tunnel somewhat obliquely, but approximately parallel with the creek for 12 
miles, and emerges from it near Oxford, where it passes into the Anniston Vallev 

" The geological structure of Choccolocco Valley is somewhat peculiar but 'is 
most favorable tor bringing its ores within reach of the miner. The ores of this 
valley are exceedingly rich and abundant, but have hitherto lain untouched in 
their original beds for want of the transportation and capital necessary for their 
utilization. The comparative ease with which they can be mined ; their proximity 
to good furnace sites along Choccolocco (h-eek, which furnishes ample supplies 
of water at all seasons; the abundance of limestones near at hand; the presence 
of extensive forests that can be utilized for making charcoal, and the flicilities for 
transporting coal, which are now assured, all contribute to make this a most 
attractive region for those who have capital and enterprise to invest in the manu- 
facture of iron. 

" Limestone.— The limestones of Choccolocco Valley are exposed to view at 
many points along the streams. The blue varietv of good quality has been 
quarried for lime a short distance northwest of White Plains. Then again, near 
the point at which the railway crosses Choccolocco Creek, we examined a bed of 



242 ALABAMA. 

grayisli-blue stone of fine appearance. The same rock is found at many otlier points 
along tlie valley. We may therefore conclude that it exists here in abundance— a 
large proportion of it sutftciently pure to be employed as flux in blast furnaces. 

"8. Anniston Valley, a branch of the great Silurian Valley of the Coosa, 
introduces us to another extensive ore region. Anniston, where the Woodstock 
Company's furnaces are in active operation in tlie n)anutacture of charcoal iron, 
is at the junction of the Georgia Pacific Railway with the Selma, Rome and 
Dalton Railroad. 

"The region near Anniston is among the best ore fields in Alabama. The 
ores that supply the furnaces are mined on a large scale on both sides of the 
valley. In some places they occur in boulders and fragments of every size, from 
those weighing several tons to others no larger than a pea, and are mingled with 
clay, sand and water-worn pc^bbles in such'awayas to indicate that they have 
been subjected to the action of quarternary drift. They appear, however, to have 
been moved but a short distance from their original bedding, as is inferred from 
their geological origin and the fact that they are but little water- worn, while the 
Avell-rounded boulders and pebbles of hard sandstone have evidently been brought 
from more distant points. At other places the ore beds-are 'in situ' as illustrated 
by Allen's Mine, on land adjoining the Woodstock property, where the ore is 
imbedded in shale, apparently of the Quebec epoch. 

"The Pine Grove ore bank, two miles west of Anniston, is at present worked 
on quite a large scale for consumption in the Woodstock Company's furnaces. 
The mining here is comparatively easy and inexpensive. The deposit of ore 
along the flank of the ridge has been traced for several miles, thus indicating a 
very large quantity. 

"This belt of iron-bearing strata has some interesting developments at points 
northeast of Anniston and near the line of the Selma, Rome and Dalton Railroad. 
For example, on lands near Weaver's Station we found some openings of limonite 
in the Quebec shales, and near the crest of the same ridge mining has been done 
to some extent, but evidently in an older geological formation than that near the 
base of the ridge — most probably in calciferous strata; possibly in upper primor- 
dial. All these promise good results from future mining. 

"Associated with these lowest ores is a bed of manganese ore, the extent of 
which has not been determined, but it is in the same range as the manganiferous 
ores successfully tested at Woodstock Furnace in making Spiegeleisen. 

"Southwest of Oxford— in fact, within the limits of the town— the Anniston 
and Choccolocco ore belts coalesce and extend into Talladega County, where they 
furnish ample supplies of material for the Alabama Furnace, which is now making 
charcoal iron of good quality. 

" The following analyses will serve to illustrate the quality of the ores of this 
region. They are from banks a few miles southeast of Alabama Furnace, and will 
serve as general types of the limonite ores of this extensive belt : 

Analyses op Limonite Ores. 

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION. NO. I. NO. 2. 

Combined water 1 1 . 86 1 1 . 52 

Silicious matter 7-58 11. 71 

Ferric oxide 77-54 68.93 

Alumina 2.07 3.59 

Manganese oxide 3-77 

Lime 0-07 o- 10 

Magnesia 0-63 0.05 

Phosphoric acid 0.29 0.13 

Sulphur 

Undetermined and loss 0.59 0.20 

Metallic iron 58.28 48.25 

Phosphorus 0.13 0.06 

Analyses of Limestones. 
"The four geological formations to be relied upon for the greater part of the- 
best limestone available for lime and for use in furnaces are the Quebec, Chazy, 
Trenton and sub-carboniferous. The following table represents analyses of 
samples from each of these formations : [From State Reports.] 

SUB-CAR- 
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION. QUEBEC. CHAZY. TRENTON. SONIFEROUS. 

Carbonate of lime 55-35 86.72 90.60 93-40 

Carbonate of magnesia 34-58 6.31 6.74 0.32 

Silicious matter 7.75 5-32 2.13 5.32 

Alumina and ferric oxide 1.48 1.56 0.33 0.79 

Water and loss 0.84 0.26 o.ii o.io 



ALABAMA. 243 

*' No. 1 is a well-characterized dolomitic limestone, but has been successfully 
!ised for furnace flux. 

•' In going westward from Anniston towards the Coosa River we find much 
of the surface of the country occupied by gravelly ridges, the general trend of 
which is northeast and southwest, coinciding with the strike of tlie stratified 
rocks. These hills rest upon beds of limestone, as indicated by the numerous 
round sinKs (pot-hoies) found on tlieir surfaces, and by the many exposures of 
limestones along the valleys eroded by the contiguous streams. Along these 
valleys and on the adjacent slopes, which have been stripped of their cherty 
coverings, appear the rich red soils produced by the disintegration of the under- 
lying f(nTuginous shales and limestones. In these red soils are seen mauy indica- 
tions of ore deposits similar to those in the neighborhood of Oxford and Anniston. 

" On lands in Calhoun County many favorable surfoce indications of limonite 
ores are found. Then, farther west, in the northern part of Talladega County, 
not more than one or two miles from the line of the Georgia Pacific Railway, 
abundant bloom of ore appears, 

"Farther south, but still nearer the line of the railway, at numerous points 
between Oxford, Calhoun County, and Eden, St. Clair County, evidences of exten- 
sive deposits of iron ore of Quebec age appear, awaiting transportation, capital 
and euterprise for their development. 

" Limestone.— The limestone for flux at the Woodstock furnaces is hauled four 
or five miles on wagons from a little valley (an ottshoot of the Coosa Valley) 
wiiich runs from the neighborhood of Weaver's Station up a small branch of 
Cane Creelv, between two ridges of the Ladiga range. The quarry is in a mass, 
apparently, of Quebec and Chazy limestone caught as a synclinal fold between 
the two ridges. The beds are considerably metamorphosed, but the position of 
those from wliich the rock is quarried seems to put them in the Chazy formation, 
thouirh the fossils were too obscure to be determined. 

The expensive hauling of this limestone for so great a distance and across a 
ridge of considei'al^le elevation will be rendered unnecessary by the completion of 
the'Georgia Pacific Railway, which traverses both the Silurian limestones of the 
Coosa Valley and the sub-carboniferous limestones of the Coosa and Cahaba coal 
fields. From these sources abundant supplies of fluxing material can be obtained 
of excellent quality and at very moderate cost. One of the best l!mestone areas 
between Anniston and the Coosa River is the Valley of Blue Eye Creek and in 
some of its branches. This valley also afl'ords some excellent sites for furnaces, 
with e:ood supplies of water. 

""West of the river, two miles from Coleman's Ferry, abundant bloom of 
limonite ore appears on a cherty ridge belonging to Mr. Coleman — ore apparently 
good, but no beds opened. This ridge is geologically above the general horizon 
of the ores of this region. A little farther west is another deposit not far from 
the line of feult where the Lower Silurian limestones are brought up to the level 
of the sub-carboniferous strata, on the eastern margin of the Coosa coal field. 

"4. Coosa, and Cahaba Valleys. — The sub-carboniferous period was iron- 
producing during a portion at least of its continuance. Overlymg the limestones 
of this period there is, in both the Coosa and Cahaba fields, a considerable stratum 
of chert and cherty sandstone, in which beds of limonite ore have been accumu- 
lated. As an example of this we refer to Daughdrille's Range, a short distance 
north of Broken Arrow Creek, in St. Clair County, the northwestern face of 
which is an outcrop of sub-carboniferous limestone full of characteristic fossils 
and estimated at about 150 feet in thickness. The limestone is covered by a bed 
of shale, and the whole crowned with a thick stratum of crinoidal chert and 
cherty sandstones, all dipping, at ditferent points along the ridge, from 35° to 45° 
soutlieast. The southeastern slope of the ridge is covered with fragments of 
chert and cherty sandstones, mingled with floating limonite ore, thousands of 
tons of which could be gathered up from the surface within a short distance. 
Daughdrille's Ridge may be taken as a type of a line of broken ridges extending 
for a long distance towards the Southwest, and consisting throughout the whole 
extent of our observations of beds of sub-carboniferous limestone, shale and 
chert, all dipping towards the southeast at angles varying from 30° to 50°. 

" Near Eden this limestone ridge is cut into several short ridges, one of which, 
a little way southwest of the railway line, is strewn with abundant fragments of 
iron ore and crinoidal chert, like those of Daughdrille's Ridge. 

"P-{issing farther westward into the Valley of the Little or East Cahaba 
River we find an up-lift of Lower Silurian limestones, shales and cherts, forming 
a valley (from two to four miles wide) which separates the Coosa and Cahaba 



244 ALABAMA. 

coal fields. It is limitod along its northwest margin by a fault or slip Avhicli has 
brought the Silurian limestones, etc., up to the level of the highest coal-bearing 
strata of the Cahaba coal field, thus causing formations of widely separated geo- 
logical ages to abut against each other, or, in some places, making the newer coal 
rocks a]iparently dip beneath the older limestones. 

"About six miles south of the point at which the Georgia Pacific Railway 
crosses the Little Cahaba we examined an extensive bed of limonite ore on the 
southeastern slope of what is locally known as Oak Ridge — a long line of hills 
(once a continuous ridge) composed of sub-carboniferous Innestone resting upon 
the beds of shale and sandstone of the Clinton epoch, and overlaid by the same 
crinoidal chert so often mentioned as the repository of limonite ores. Here much 
of the cherty bed is really a cherty sandstone. The ore in it is very massive, and 
was opened and mined at several points during the war sufiiciently to demonstrate 
its great abundance. 

"Near Moody's Cross-Roads the Quebec limestones and shales come to the 
surface and give evidence of carrying considerable quantities of iron ore. 

'^Limestones. — The iron ores that border the coal fields not only have an 
abundant supply of fuel near at hand, but have also, within a stone's cast of 
them, limestones in great abundance, and of quality well suited for furnace flux. 
The Chazy, Trenton and upper sub-carboniferous limestones are the purest in this 
region, and are therefore the best for use in the furnace. The Chazy and Trenton 
lie along the public highway and on several of the cross-roads within convenient 
distance of the railway for several miles as it traverses the valley. The line of 
sub-carboniferous ridges along the eastern side will furnish an indefinite quantity 
of stone similar to that which is now quarried near Trussville and used in some 
of the Birmingham furnaces. 

*'5. The Birmingham Valley. — The Silurian valley in which Birmingham 
is located, and the Red Mountain ridges which border it in part on both sides, 
have been already referred to as constituting one of the great ore fields of Ala- 
bama, and as embracing two of the geological formations noted for the quantity 
and quality of the ores they yield. (1.) The lower shales and limestones of the 
valley are of the same epoch as those from which the ores for the Woodstock and 
Alabama Furnaces are obtained, and carry with them at many points the same 
grade of ores. (2.) The other ore-producing formation belongs to the Clinton 
epoch, and characterizes the celebrated Red Mountain. It is noted as the reposi- 
tory of extensive and well-characterized beds of lenticular and fossil ores of 
superior grade, both as to richness and purity. These ores form a noted feature 
of the Clinton group all the way from Pennsjdvania, through Virginia and East 
Tennessee, to Central Alabama. 

" The Red Mountain is a striking feature in the topography as well as in the 
geology of this region. As a conspicuous ridge rising several hundred feet above 
the adjacent country, it passes within about a mile of Birmingham, and forms the 
southeast boundary of the valley in which the city is situated. 

"The quantity and quality of the ores of both Quebec and Clinton ages along 
tlie Birmingham Valley have been fully demonstrated by their extensive and sat- 
isfactory use in a number of furnaces. Near Greenpond Station, on the Alabama 
Great Southern Railroad, about 25 miles southwest of Birmingham, limonite ores 
Lave been mined on a large scale for use in the Oxmoor Furnace, where they 
are employed in admixture with the fossil ores from Red Mountain. The brown 
ores for the Alice Furnace are obtained from the same region. 

" Ores of the same class are mined for the Sloss Furnaces in the valle}' about 
eight miles southeast of Birmingham. 

"The Red Mountain ore lias been opened on the top of the ridge opposite 
Birmingham and about one mile southeast of the city, but from want of know- 
ledge on the part of the miners the good ore Avas thrown into a heap with that of 
inferior quality, making a confused mass too poor to be profitably woi-ked. The 
])rolongation of the same bed fartlier south may be seen exposed in the railroad 
cut at Grace's Gap, on the South and North Railroad, five miles from Birmingham. 

"The red ores have been extensively mined about two miles northwest of 
Oxmoor Furnace. The mines are on tlie crest and soutlieastern slope of Red 
Mountain, in a remarkably well-defined bed 7^ feet thick between strata of hard 
ferruginous sandstones, which, with the ore bed, make an aggregate thickness of 
30 feet. The ore is sufficiently free from clay to be used without washing. It is 
carried down to the furnace by rail and there mixed with one-third of 'its own 
weight of brown ore for use in the furnace. This combination yields one ton of 



ALABAMA. 245 

pig iron to two tons of the ore, and requires for its reduction one ton of limestone 
with one and one-half tons of coke. 

"For the Sloss Furnace tlie red ore is obtained from a mine a few miles 
farther toward the southwest. From the outcrop near the crest of the ridge the 
bed is worked downward on its southeastern dip, and has a thickness of 14 feet of 
good ore. It is also approached b}- a tunnel on the northwestern flank of the 
ridge, 250 feet below the outcrop. The ore brought out by the tunnel is remark- 
able for its large percentage of carbonate of lime. Both varieties (No. 1 from the 
outcrop and Ko. 2 from tlie tunnel) are employed at the same time, mixed with 
the Quebec limonite in the proportion of one ton each of Nos. 1 and 2 and a half 
ton of the limonite. This combination yields one ton of superior pig iron. 

" The following analyses of the two varieties of ore from the Sloss Mine, for 
which we are indebted to Col. Sloss, will serve to illustrate the composition of the 
Red Mountain ores generally, and may be regarded as representing two types of 
ore found at different points along the Clinton formation — the one abounding in 
carbonate of lime ; the other containing verj^ little or none : 

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION. NO. I. NO. 2. 

Ferric oxide 74-98 58.30 

(Corresponding to metallic iron 52 .48 40.81) 

Carbonate of lime 0.00 22.42 

Silica (chiefly as sand) 14-56 9-^4 

Phosphoric acid (P2O5) 1.05 0.57 

Equivalent in phosphorus ^ 0.45 0.24 

" The red ore used at the Alice Furnace is mined in the same ridge as those 
above mentioned, and about nine miles southwest of Birmingham, near the Ala- 
bama Great Southern Railroad. It is worked in the furnace mixed with half its 
weight of limonite ore, the mixture jdelding 52.81 per cent, of pig iron. 

" The analysis of the red ore of the Alice furnace Mine, kindly furnished by 
Capt. Hillman, superintendent, is highly favorable : 

Silica 12. i8 

Alumina 2.68 

Lime 0.28 

Magnesia 0.39 

Phosphoric acid 0.29 

Water 2.96 99-7° 

Metallic iron 56.64 

" The Red Mountain, still flanking the valley on both sides for a long distance 
in the same direction, carries with it outcroppings of its characteristic red fossil 
ores that point to extensive beds beneath. The increasing demand for these ores 
will soon give rise to new mining enterprises that will bring them into market as 
a source of wealth to the communities in which they are located, and of patronage 
to the railroads. 

" Black-band ore and clay iron-stone have been found at several points in the 
coal regions, and some samples from the Warrior field have been tested in the 
furnaces and found to work well in admixture with the more silicious ores. These 
are the leading ores in England, and have been very successfully worked in Penn- 
sylvania and in West Virginia, so that their real value has been fully demonstrated. 
There is good reason therefore for making more thorough search for them in all 
of the Alabama coal fields. 

" The bed of black-band about 65 feet below the Kew Castle coal seam affords 
one of the best demonstrations we have of the extent of this ore. It is one foot 
four inches thick, and the ore has been tested in the furnace sufficiently to estab- 
lish its value. 

''Drift ore is a term sometimes applied to a deposit of impure limonite found 
in considerable quantities in the stratified drift heretofore mentioned as spread 
over the ciirboniferous rocks in the western part of Walker and in large iiortions 
of Fayette and Lamar Counties. The ore is found in greatest abundance cropping 
out at high points on the faces of the hills as we travel out west of Fayetteville. 
But its real value remains to be determined by future explorations as to its quan- 
tity, and by chemiclil or furnace tests as to its quality. 

"Analyses of three samples of this limonite ore, reported by Prof. McCalley, 
of the State Laboratory, give the following averages of the most important 
constituents: 

PER CENT. 

Metallic iron 55-88 

Silicious matter 4-41 

Sulphur O.I2 

Phosphorus , 0,22 



246 * ALABAMA. 

" These results compare very favorably with those of analyses of the limonite 
ores from other parts of the State." 

Throughout the regious mentioned in the foregoing extract, there are 
thousands of millions of tons of ore. In one mountain alone it has been 
estimated by competent engineers that there are 500,000,000,000 tons. One of 
tlie most important considerations is the cheapness with which it can be mined. 

TIMBER. 

The timber resources of Alabama are enormous. Millions of acres are 
covered with virgin forests of long and short-leaved pine, cypress, the several 
varieties of oak, chestnut, hickory, walnut and other woods. The most widely 
distributed is the long-leaved pine, {Pinus anstralis.) In the lower counties of the 
State are vast forests of magniticent pines, their straight trunks rising to enormous 
heights, with an entire absence of underbrush. The pine supply of the State was 
estimated by the Census Department in 1880 to be 21,192,000,000 feet, of which 
there were 18,885,000,000 feet long-leaved pine, divided as follows : East of the 
Perdido River, 4,055,000,000; west of Perdido River, 2,000,000,000; in the region 
of mixed growth, 10,000,000,000; in the Central Cotton Belt, 1,750,000,000; in the 
Coosa River Basin, 900,000,000 ; in the Walker County District, 180,000,000. In 
this estimate no account is made of small timber standing on some 1,282,000 acres 
which have been cut over, or on 600,000 acres injured by the manufacture of tur- 
pentine. There are fewer pine trees per acre in the region of mixed growth than 
in the Pine Belt proper which it adjoins on the north, but the individual trees 
being larger, the average amount of standing pine per acre is greater, although 
generally of poorer quality. The amount of short-leaved pine in the State is put 
at 2,007,000,000 feet, of which 1,875,000,000 feet were in the Central Pine Belt, and 
432,000,000 in the Coosa River Basin. In the northern portion of the State there 
are large oak forests, and on the timber lands generally throughout the State there 
are extensive areas of hickory, cherry, walnut, oak, etc. In the swamps along the 
coast there are large quantities of the finest cypress. The following is from an 
article on the '- Timber Resources of the South," by Mr. Chas. H. Wells, published 
in the Baltimore Manufacturers' Record of October 11, 1884: 

"Leaving Tennessee, we pass through upper Georgia, where some of the 
finest pine in'^the world is growing. The Atlanta manufacturers have gotten bold 
of nearly all the valuable land, and as it is my intention to treat only of those 
sections open to investment, we will pass at once into Alabama. Possibly no 
condition of affairs in any country ever presented so impregnable a front against 
the revolutionizing influences aiid changing customs of a progressive age as did 
that of Alabama before the war. The land, as a rule, was held not in acres, but 
in square miles, by siiii^le individuals, through inheritance, deed or purchase. A 
plantation of tlie ante-bellmn days used frequently to extend over an area covering 
many s(iuare miles of territory. These great plantations have been cut up into 
farnis, and, as a result, much valuable timber land is for sale. Capital has poured 
into tiiis section as the waters of a mighty river break through its banks, and has 
resulted in the establishment of mills, foundries, factories and manufjicturing 
enterprises of every character; has torn away the barriers of earth that have so 
long hidden the mineral treasures, and exposed rare qualities of coal and iron ore 
in incalculable quantities. The same power has crossed her fields with iron tracks 
of the railways; hewed her mighty forests for shipment, not only throughout our 
own country, but to Europe as well; has builded her cities, revived her commerce, 
re-established her credit, developed her resources, and brought her before the 
notice of the world as one of the most favored sections of country upon the 
globe. To capital, then, Alabama holds her outstretched arms, and many there be 
just now who are availing themselves of this opportunity. There is a portion of 
Alabama known as 'the lon-r-leaf pine region.' It is thickly timbered with this 
valuable yellow pine lumber, which contributes to the supply of nearly every 
European city, and provides masts and spars— so tall, strong and straight is this 
timber— for the sailing vessels of almost every nation on the globe. A railroad 
has just been finished through this section, and it goes without saying that the 



ALABAMA. 247 

Tesources of tbe country Lave scarcely been touched. These resources exist at 
present ahnost wholly in pine forests/which cover thousands of square miles of 
territory, and seem abt-olutely inexhaustible in their profuse growth and magnifi- 
cent development. Before even the survey of the line had been completed, 
numerous sites for saw mills had been selected, and within a few months after, 
machinery had been hauled in Avagons from Enterprise and Meridian, (its trans- 
portation occupying days and often weeks,) was erected and set to work; until at 
the present date, upon the completion of the railway, there are millions of feet of 
accumulated sawed timber awaiting transportation to Northern and Eastern 
cities and to New Orleans for shipment abroad. The surface of the country i> 
rolling and undulating, with almost park-like regularity, and one frequently sees 
stretches of country which, with its long luxuriant growth of Bermuda grass, its 
groves of graceful young pine and cedar, and its gentle slopes, bubbling springs 
and charming depressions and miniature valleys, might rival in beauty many of 
the city and suburban parks of Northern and Eastern sections. Although the 
soil, with careful treatment, will prove profitably productive, the principal indus- 
try must remain that of timber shipping for many years to come. These lumber 
lands maybe purchased at from $3 to"$5 per acre, and will yield from 8,000 to 
10,000 feet of sawed timber to the acre, worth from $40 to $60, for which there is 
a ready market in the rapidly-growing cities of the Southwest. The only invest- 
ment necessary is that in the lands themselves and in the machinery for sawing." 

MANUFACTUKING. 

Alabama, like her sister States of the South, is making wonderful progress in 
manufactures. With her immense forests of the best timber, her thousands of 
square miles of coal, her inexhaustible deposits of iron ore, there is room for 
unlimited development in this direction, and she possesses unsurpassed, if not 
unequalled, focilities for economical manufacturing. With the raw material and 
fuel easily and cheaply accessible — her beds of iron and coal, all varieties of 
timber, her cotton fields — with all these in close proximity, the cost of manufac- 
turing is reduced to the minimum ; added to which she has ready access to the 
markets of the country by means of her splendid railroad facilities, and through 
the Tennessee Eiver, which aff'ords cheap transportation to the West by way of 
the iSIississippi and its branches. Looked at from any standpoint, Alabama is an 
inviting field for the establishment of manufacturing enterprises. The leading 
industries are coal mining, the manufacture of iron, cotton manufacturing, and 
the lumber business. In 1884 there were 82,057 spindles and 1,014 looms in the 
cotton mills in Alabama, against 55,072 spindles and 1,060 looms in 1880. The 
development of these opens the way for other industries, and is leading to a rapid 
and healthy growth in diversified manufactures. As bearing on manufactures in 
Alabama, I give the following, which is from the pen of Col. A. K. McClure, in a 
recent number of his paper, the Philadelphia Times. It possesses additional 
interest and weight from the fact that it is by a Northern writer, the editor of one 
of the foremost papers in Pennsylvania, and a man accustomed to say nothing 
rashly, but whose statements are based on investigation, and who in this instance 
states what to him and his readers are unpleasant facts: 

"I have studied the resources and opportunities of the State with special 
interest, because they are certain to revolutionize some of our chief sources of 
wealth in Pennsylvania, and the more they are studied the more clear it must 
become to every intelligent mind that England is not to-day more the rival of the 
Keystone State in the future production of iron and coal than is Alabama. There 
is not a source of mineral wealth in Pennsylvania, excepting onl}' our oil product, 
that is not found in Alabama in equal or greater abundance, with the matchless 
advantages of climate, of easier and cheaper production, and of vastly cheaper 
transportation. Nature's great gifts to Pennsylvania have been not only liberally 
supplemented in Alabama, but to them have been added every possible natural 
advantage for their cheap development and delivery to the markets of the world. 
If half the capital and business direction that have been given to make Pennsyl- 
vania peerless in the production of mineral wealth had been given to Alabama, 
lier productive wealth would be as great as that of the Iron State, and her popu- 



248 ALABAMA. 

latioii ^voiild be nearer five millions than the million and a (luarter now scattered 
over the, boundless but almost untouched riches of this sunny commonwealth. 
Think of a State with over 5,000 square miles of productive coal fields, whose 
coal is now sold at a fair profit in New Orleans at less than $4 per ton. It is 
mainly of the best quality, alike for connnercial, manufacturing and domestic 
purposes; it is in large veins; it is more easily mined than our most favorably 
located bituminous coal fields in the North; and in large portions of the coal 
fields there is good iron in abundance, much of it requiring no actual mining at 
all, and with the iron and coal is found the limestone. Birmingham is a feeble 
forecast of what Alabama may do. There a city of a dozen thousands presents a 
hive of industry Avhcre a single house stood at a railway crossing little more than 
a decade btjck. It is the one point of Alabama where iron and coal abound that 
has happened to be reached by transportation, and it has sprung up as if by magic 
to i)oint out not only the possibilities, but the inevitable and wonderful destiny of 
the State. It is admitted tJiat iron can now be produced in this State $6 per ton 
cheaper than in tlie reasonably favored iron centres of Pennsylvania, and that is 
a certain index of the industrial revolution that is rapidly approaching. What 
has been done in Birmingham not only can be done as well in many other parts 
of the State, but it can be even more profitably done in Birmingham and else- 
where in Alabama as soon as the great natural highways of the State shall be 
made available; and no citizen of the North of fair intelligence can review the 
slumbering wealth of Alabama and the waterways which otter the cheapest trans- 
portation without accepting the conclusion that the next generation will see this 
State an iron and coal centre equal to if not surpassing Pennsylvania, and Mobile 
the great coal depot of the coast. * * * It is idle for Pennsylvania and other 
great iron and coal producmg States to close their eyes to the fact we have 
reached the beginning of a great revolution in those products. No iegislation, no 
sound public polic}', no sentiment, can halt such a revolution when the inunutable 
laws of trade connnand it; and the sudden tread of the hordes from the northern 
forests upon ancient Rome did not more suddenly threaten the majesty of the 
mistress of the world than does the tread of the iron and coal diggers of Alabama 
threaten the majesty of Northern iron and coal fields. I do not credit the common 
saying that iron can be produce d here for $9 per ton. There are many here who 
will tell 3'ou so; but after careful inquiry in the most intelligent and reliable 
circles, I fix an entirely sate limit of average cost at $ll.oO. There is iron pro- 
duced here at less than that cost; but $11.5U is as just an estimate for Birmingham 
as $17 is for Pennsylvania; and it must be remembered that Pennsylvania has 
reached the minimum cost in the production and marketing of her iron, while 
Alabama can and will greatly cheapen the delivery of her iron in the great centres 
of trade. And what is true of iron must be ecjually true of coal. They are twin 
sisters whose development must keep pace with each other. Nova Scotia will 
soon learn to fear Alabama more than the small tariff" now imposed upon her 
imported coal, and instead of extorting double prices for bituminous coal, as she 
did in the early days of the late war, before protection had developed our Northern 
mines, she will find Alabarua crowding both herself and Pennsylvania in the New 
England factories, and with the waterways of the State perfected, even England 
will have to look to her laurels in the Central and South American States. These 
lessons come upon us j)lain as the noonday sun, and it is midsummer madness not 
to read them understandingly. AVe cannot war with destiny; we cannot efface 
the beneficent gifts of Him who leads the waters to the sea and sends them back 
in the dews and rains of heaven, Alabama has been gifted far beyond even our 
boasted empire of Pennsylvania, and only the Southern sluggard has hitherto 
given the race to the North. Now there is a New South, with new teachings, 
new o])portuniti('S, new energies and manifestly a ncAV destiny, and the time is ali 
hand when a lai"g(; portion of the great iron and coal products of the country 
which enter competing centres will be supplied cheaper from Alabama than from 
any State in the North, How Pennsylvania "will solve the pioblem I do not 
assume to decide; but the logical residt would be the transfer of the portion of 
the iron industry that can best prosper hej-e from the North to the South, just as 
the spinning and weaving of the home consumpticm of cotton must soon come 
to the cotton fields, and the better water-])ower and climate which they furnish. 
* * * With the marvelous progress made here when stagnation prevailed in all 
the coal and iron centres of the North, what must be the strides of this industrial 
centre when prosperity comes to revive the same industries in Pennsylvania? 
This country will di-aw the j'^oung men of energy from the coal and iron moun- 
tains of Pennsylvania just as the fertile prairies of the West have drawn the 



ALABAMA. 249 

young men of energy from our Pennsylvania farms, and there is room for 
thousands of them with better prospects*^ of success than in any new State or 
Territory of the Union. Tliese are strong expressions, but I write tliem only 
after tlie most exhaustive inquiry and careful examination, and I know that they 
are fully warranted. This is the coal and iron empire of the South, and, I believe, 
the future coal and iron empire of the United States, and it has a climate and soil 
adapted to the bountiful growth of everything grown in Pennsylvania, witli one- 
sixth of the entire cotton crop of the South added. It is the equal of Pennsjd- 
vania in forest, tield and mine, with climate, natural highways and cheapness of 
product turning the scales in protit by them. They will not make Pennsylvania 
poor, for her people and resources are equal to any and all the mutations of 
industry and trade; but tliey will make Ahibama rich, and that will multiply the- 
w^ealth and grandeur of the whole Union." 

IRON. 

Prior to 1870 the iron interests of Alabama had received comparatively little 
attention. A few furnaces had been erected since the war, but the business in the 
aggregate was of very moderate proportions— the total production of iron in that 
State in 1870 being only 7,060 tons. By 1880 thero had been a considerable growth 
of the iron interests, and the census reports of that year show 13 furnaces, with 
an aggregate capital of $3,100,190— the production being 62,;j33 tons. It was not, 
however, until after the census reports were comjuled that Alabama began ta 
attract great attention as the probable centre of an immense iron-making industry. 
During the last four years there has been a wonderful development of the State's 
iron resources, and Alabama iron is now successfully competing in Northern 
markets with Pennsylvania iron. In 18S5 the production of pig iron in Alabama 
•was 237,438 tcms— an increase in annual production in five years of over 165,000 
tons. This State is very generally believed to be able to make pig iron at a lower 
cost than any other State in the Union, and whether this popular belief is entirely 
correct or not, it is quite certain that no other State can offer greater advantages 
for this industry. Hon. Abram S. Hewitt, of New York, whose long experience 
in the iron trade makes hirn fully competent to express an authoritative opinion 
upon such a subject, has said of Alabama: 

"It is the only place upon the North American Continent wdiere it is possible 
to make iron in competition with the cheap iron of England, as measured not by 
wages paid, but by the number of days' lal)or which enter into its production. 
The cheapest place on the globe until now for the manufacture of iron is the 
Cleveland District, in Yorkshn-e, England. The distance of tlie coal and iron 
from tlie furnaces there averages about 30 miles. Now in Alabama the coal and 
the ore are in many places within half a mile of each other. This region, so 
exhaustless in supplies, so admirably furnished with coal, so conveniently commu- 
nicating with the gulf, will be of infinitely more consequence to us for its iron 
than it has ever been fc»r its cotton. I think this will be a region of coke made 
iron on a scale grander than has ever been witnessed on the habitable globe." 

Stronger language could hardly have been used by the most enthusiastic 
friend of Alabama. There seems no room now for doubt that Mr. Hewitt's 
prediction as to the extent of ii*on making in Alabama is certain of fulfilment 
and in all probability this will come to pass much sooner than Mr. Hewitt ex- 
pected. The developments in iron making in that State during the last year or 
two have been the most stupendous probably ever seen before in the world, in the 
same length of time. Gigantic enterprises have been undertaken, involving the 
expenditure of millions of dollars in the building of furnaces, steel works, rolling 
mills, and iron industries generally, and this marvellous progress continues with 
no indications of any falling off. It is almost useless to attempt an enumeration 
of the many companies that are now at work either building or preparing to 
build large furnaces, for scarcely a day passes without adding to the list. It may, 
however, be said that between 20 and 30 furnaces, none of them less than 100 tons 
daily capacity, are either under construction or projected with good assurances of 
early building. Among the places showing the greatest activity in furnace-building 



250 ALABAMA. 

are Birmingham, Anniston, Ensley, Bessemer and Sheffield, though a number of 
other places are preparing to engage in the same good work. Steel works, it is 
understood, will be erected at Bessemer, Ensley and possibly Anniston. It is a 
noteworthy fact that the developments in the iron interests of Alabama of Jate 
years have been mainly the work of Southern men, notwithstanding the prevalent 
belief, in some sections, to the contraiy. It is indeed surprising to note the won- 
derful energy with which Southern men have engaged in this work, and the 
amount of Southern money invested in it. 

It is especially gratifying to note that even more rapidly than new furnaces 
are being erected, new diversified iron manufactures are coming into existence. 
The wide diversity of these new industries is surprising, and not only will Ala- 
bama—and what is true of Alabama is also true of Tennessee and several other 
Southern States— soon be supplying the home market with machinery, agricul- 
tural implements, hardware, &c., but will also invade the West, and doubtless 
enter the foreign markets with more chance of successful competition than the 
North, owing to the much lower cost at which these goods can be produced. 
Rolling mills, machine shops, foundries, iron pipe works, nail factories, and many 
other kindred enterprises are being established in all parts of the State. 

LUMBER. 

The manufacture of lumber is naturally an industry of importance and mag- 
nitude in Alabama. There is the best of nearly all kinds of timber ; there is a 
large home demand, which is rapidly growing, and the railroads through the 
timber belts, as well as the numberless navigable streams, afford access to outside 
markets. The development of the industrial and commercial interests of the 
State, and the consequent activity in building, furnish a demand for an enormous 
quantity of building lumber. The supply of yellow pine in Alabama (which is 
coming more and more into demand everjrvvhere for building, while the uses to 
which it is applied are extending) may be said to be inexhaustible ; certainly for 
years to come there can be no perceptible signs of depletion. The rapid increase 
in the number of furniture factories and other wood-working establishments will 
require extensive supplies of pine and hardwood lumber. There is probably no 
branch of business in the State paying better than saw and planing mills, shingle 
mills, etc. Through Mobile, which is developing rapidly as a lumber port, an 
immense business is being built up with Northern and foreign ports. 

GENERAL MANUFACTURES. 

Following the development of the coal, iron and timber resources of the 
State, comes naturally the establishment of minor industries. Furniture factories, 
spoke and handle factories, wagon and carriage factories, establishments for the 
manufacture of agi-icultural implements, stoves, hardware, machinery, etc., find 
here a most inviting field. There are all the elements o^ economy in manufacture 
— cheapness of fuel, the very lowest cost of raw material, with other advantages. 
Machine and repair shops do well in the manufacturing towns. The canning of 
fruits and vegetables is a profitable industry. Ice factories pay handsomel)'. 

EDUCATION. 
The State has a good system of public schools, and numerous private schools 
and colleges, both for males and females. 

SOME MATTERS OF LAW. 

''Property Exempt from Execution for Debt. — $1,000 in personal property and 
$2,000 in real property is exempt from execution for debt. On the death of the 
owner and occupant, a surviving widow or child, or children, or both, the home- 
stead, not exceeding the above value, is exempt during the life of the widow or 



ALABAMA. 251 

the minorit}'^ of a surviving child; wages and salaries of laborers and employees 
for personal services to the value of $25. The legal rate of interest is 8 per cent. 

" The property of married women is secured to them by constitutional pro- 
vision, the husband being her trustee, and entitled to the rents and profits for the 
support of the family. 

" Fences and Stock. — Under the general law of the State, stock of all kinds 
are allowed to run at large, imposing upon land owners the necessity of fencing. 
But from time to time the Legislature has passed laws applicable to limited dis- 
tricts, requiring owners of stock to take care of them, and rendering them liable 
for damage to the crops of their neighbors. 

" Taxation. — AH property is equally subject to taxation. By constitutional 
provision, the rate can never exceed 75 cents in the $100. The counties can 
impose one-half of one per cent, in addition. The present State rate is 65 cents 
on the $100." 

In the article on Mississippi the attractions of the gulf coast for the invalid 

and the tourist, and as a place of resort, will be referred to at some length. "What 

is there said will apply to a part of the southern coast of Alabama. Mobile and 

contiguous territory are becoming noted as a place of resort for health and 

pleasure seekers. 



ANNISTON, IN NORTH ALABAMA. 

AS a specimen of the rapid development of Southern towns that have only 
come into existence within the last few 3'ears, the publishers 2)resent the 
following description of Ann iston: The town is on the main line of the 
East Tennessee, A^irginia and Georgia Railroad, and at the crossing of the main 
line of the Georgia Pacific Railroad, between Atlanta and Birmingham. It is 
but a few hours' ride from Atlanta, Columbus, Macon and Rome, Ga., or from 
IMontgomcry, Mobile and Selma, Ala., or from Knoxville, Chattanooga and Nash- 
ville, Tenn., and only two hours from Birmingham. It is situated in the leart of 
the mineral and finest agricultural region of Alabama, Tennessee and Gi3orgia. 
It is reached b}'' three grand trunk lines — the East Tennessee, Virgin ia and 
Georgia, the Richmond and Danville, and the Queen and Crescent roads. New 
Orleans, but 14 hours distant, is reached from Anniston in a night's ric e in a 
sleeping car. Anniston is only 17 hours from Cincinnati, and can be reac bed in 
26 hours from Washington, being on the short line of travel from the East. North 
and Northwest to Florida and New Orleans. The town is built on a slope of 
Blue Mountain, a chain of the Blue Ridge, on the most beautiful site that could 
be selected for a town south of the Potomac, or north of it for that matter. It is 
one of the highest points accessible to railroads in the State, and for climate, 
health and beauty of scenery, it stands unrivalled. 

ITS HISTORY. 

Some 18 years ago, Mr. Samuel Noble, for the first time visiting the ruins of 
the old furnace built and destroyed during the war, was astounded to see the enor- 
mous deposits of iron ore, its richness and excellent quality. Being impressed by 
the great beauty of the situation, and its natural advantages as a manufacturing- 
and distributing point, he purchased the largest and main deposits of iron ore,, 
and continued adding to the property by other purchases until 1872, when the 
present company was f(3rmed. The Woodstock Iron Company afterwards added,, 
by judicious purchases from time to time, over 40,000 acres, making it one of the 
finest properties in America, and worked the wonders now to be seen where 
was a wilderness 13 years ago. Within a few feet of the spot where was found, 
the first suggestion of the wealth that lay within those hiUs, hundreds of men 
are daily digging from the soil the finest iron ore to be found in this country. 
The process is so simple that it does not suggest the usual associations of a mine. 
The ore is everywhere in the soil. There is no tunneling or delving into depths. 
Nature left her riches on the surface, and they are taken out as simply and as 
safely as the farmer digs his potatoes. For 10 years this one hillside has been 
drawn on, and as yet it seems merely scratched as one looks upward to the great 
slope and the thousands of acres above which are almost solid iron. A century 
of such labor Avould not begin to impoverish this mightj^ depository. But it is 
hardly richer than its sister hills, which form a bulwark about the city. 

In 1872 the Woodstock Iron Company was formed Ipy General Danl. Tyler,. 
Alfred L. Tyler, E. L. Tyler, James Noble, Sr., John W., Sanmel and William 
Noble, and the first furnace of the company was completed and started in April, 
1873, at Anniston. 

The second furnace was completed and started in August, 1879. 

In 1881 a cotton factory, the largest and finest in the State, w^as completed. 
In 18S3 the car-wheel works of Noble Bros, were moved from Rome, Ga., to 
Anniston. Other industries were established on an extensive scale. 

Meanwhile a model city had been laid out, a perfect system of drainage 
designed, the streets macadamized, water- works, stores, churches and schools 
built, railroad connections secured, and the nucleus of a great town planted in. 
the most salubrious and beautiful spot of North Alaban.t.. 



ALABAJ/A, 



253 




254 ALABAMA. 

Prior to 1883 no land was sold to anybody. The entire business of the place 
was done by the founders and owners, who were also the proprietors of the fur- 
naces, factories, foundries, machine shops, saw mills, stores, etc. The city was 
kept closed to the public up to this date not through any feeling of exclusiveness 
on the part of the proprietors or any desire on their part to control the trade of 
the city and the surrounding country. They desired simply to lay the basis of the 
city in a proper way; to so arrange its drainage that when it became a great city 
there could be no trouble in keeping it clean and healthy ; to so lay off its streets 
that the city would be s^^stematic and well proportioned, and to so macadamize 
them that they would afford safe and pleasant drives; to provide the city with 
parks located at proper places, and with w\ater-works that would protect and 
beautify the city and give the citizens convenience and comfort; to build schools, 
churches, hotels, and establish such industries as would give lucrative and fitting 
employment to its people. They felt that this work, involving heavy expense and 
the prosecution of one single plan, could not be done with a population of various 
grades of wealth and of diverse ideas. They therefore, for this reason, shut the 
general public out of the city. 

When, however, this work had all been done, the proprietors, in 1883, threw 
open the city to the public. Tlie city had then better streets, sidewalks, parks, 
shade trees, water- works, schools, churches, hotels, etc., than any city of 20,000 
inhabitants. These were built by the company and did not entail one dollar of 
debt on the city. All tlie local improvements and the three railroads brought to 
Auniston did not leave one cent of debt on the city or its future population. The 
population, which at this time was about 4,000, began to increase rapidly as the 
fame of Auniston's attractions and advantages spread abroad. 

Tlie company very materially aided the different religious denominations by 
donating them building lots for churches. The Episcopalians, Presbyterians, 
Baptists, Methodists and Homan Catholics have built or are building very hand- 
some churches and parsonages. Grace Episcopal Church, built by the Tyler and 
Noble families, is the handsomest structure in the State. It is built of cut sand- 
stone from the quarries at Auniston. The interior is finished throughout in red 
cedar, highly finished. The windows are of stained glass. The tower contains a 
chime of six bells. The colored population have also their separate churches and 
schools. 

By act of legislature, Anniston is made a separate school district. The 
schools are controlled by the Mayor and Council and school superintendent. 
Great interest has been taken in establishing them. Anniston, for its population, 
has the largest and most flourishing public schools in the State. In addition, 
there are two pay schools for boys and girls. 

Plans have been prepared and work commenced on two colleges for boys and 
girls. They will be open to all denominations, but will be under the charge of 
the bishop and rector of the Episcopal Church. 

Nowhere on tliis continent has so much been so well, so effectually done in 
any town that has been opened to the public, in establishing manufactures, organ- 
izing and sustaiuing schools, building railroads and hotels, providing Avater-works, 
electric lights, grading, macadamizing and rolling the streets, planting shade trees, 
paving drains — all combining to make Anniston the most beautiful, cleanest, 
healthiest, best drained toAvn in the United States. 

The liberal policy of the Anniston Laud and Improvement Company, who 
own the bulk of the real estate in the corporate limits, has established many other 
industries. Every encouragement is offered to new industries, with rates of 
freight to and from all points as low as the most favored city. The richest and 
most populous agricultural counties of the State tributary to it, and placed in the 



ALABAMA. 



255 



o 

> 
n 
m 

W 



> 

O 

o 

X 




256 ALABAMA. 

Yery heart of the rich iron and coal region of tlie State; supplied "svith an abun- 
dance of the purest freestone water, and with a climate unrivalled ; with the best 
of labor, healthy and contented, and the sale of liquor banished from the county, 
it is now the manufacturing and commercial center of North Alabama, and will 
be the great manufacturing center of the State, if not of the South. 

THE ANNISTON IKOX DISTRICT. 

Very little has heretofore been written on this, the most important iron dis- 
trict in Alabama, nor has even a hint been given of its wonderful wealth in 
material, its already large development, or its peculiarly fortunate position in 
r(;gard to transportation lines. 

Tlie Anniston district embraces the furnaces and iron region on each side of 
the East Tennessee, Virginia and Georgia Railroad, from Cave Spring, Ga., to 
Montevallo, Ala., as well as the remarkable iron deposits along the line of the 
Anniston and Atlantic Railroad for 50 miles south of Anniston. The latter road 
will connect with the Central Railroad system of Savannah, Ga., and with the 
new roads of the Shelby Iron Works, which will afford connection with the 
Louisville and Nashville system near Calera. The Anniston and Northern road, 
now under contract, making connection with the Cincinnati Southern system 
near Gadsden, thus fixes Anniston as the center of the very richest iron region in 
the South. This district now embraces Etna Furnace, 20 tons capacity ; Cherokee, 
50 tons; Tecumseh, 50 tons; Stonewall, 25 tons; Rock Run, 35 tons; Woodstock, 
two furnaces, 50 tons each ; Clifton Furnace No. 1, 25 tons ; Clifton New Furnace, 
GO tons; Shelby Iron Works, two furnaces, 50 tons each; Brierfield, 25 tons per 
day — 12 furnaces in all. 

These furnaces have heretofore been run on charcoal supplied from the 
immense forests of yellow pine contiguous to them. Many of them will continue 
to use charcoal for fuel exclusively for years to come. Some own such large 
bodies of timber land that they can use the same fuel indefinitely. 

The construction of the East and West Raih'oad having opened up the Coosa 
coal-lield, the developing of the Broken Arrow mines and building of coke ovens 
by that company and others,, and the opening of the Cahawba mines, 45 miles 
west of Anniston, on the Georgia Pacific Railroad, places the Anniston district in 
a far more advantageous position for making cheap iron than its younger neigh- 
bor, the Birmingham district. Anniston is now within 25 miles of the Coosa 
coal-field, which affords the best coking coal in the South, and within 45 miles of 
the Cahawba, putting it on an equality with Birmingham as far as cheap fuel 
goes ; but otherwise the advantage is all on the side of the Anniston district — in 
the abimdance and excellence of its ores, being lower in silica and phosphorus 
and richer in iron, requiring less limestone and less coke to make a ton of iron, 
and producing iron of superior quality for all purposes. 

The effect of an assured supply of coke is already seen in the late enlarge- 
ment of the Cherokee Furnace, increasing its capacity to 100 tons per day, and 
the substitution of coke for charcoal. The Tecumseh Iron Works propose making 
a change similar to that made by the Cherokee, and the Woodstock Iron Company 
are making iireparations for the building of two first-class coke furnaces of daily 
capacity of 100 tons each. Tlie construction of these will be a continuation of 
the development of this section that will, without doubt, make Anniston the great 
iron center of tiie South. 

The advantages of the Anniston district over all others is made apparent to 
the practical iron manufacturer not only by the abundance and excellence of the 
ores and the ease of procuring certain supplies of cheap fuel, but also by the 
entire absence of difliculty in mining the ores. So far, in every case, the ore is 



ALABAMA. 



257 




558 ALABA3fA. 

mined in open cut. Mining consists simply in undermining and blasting down 
hills of ore, no underground mining or timbering being done. 

The most noted deposits of ore are the mines owned by the Clifton, Wood- 
stock and Shelby Companies. They have been worked for years and hardly show 
the signs of being touched, so immense are the quantities of ore in siglit; while 
along the whole line of the East Tennessee, Vii'ginia and Georgia Kailroad, from 
Cave Spring, Ga., to Montevallo, Ala., for many miles on each side, extensive 
deposits of rich ores exist, and deposits of equal magnitude are found for several 
miles east and west of Anniston, on the Georgia Pacific road. The most remark- 
able deposits occur on the line of the new Anniston and Atlantic road, and still 
more ore will be mnde accessible by the completion of the Anniston and Northern, 
which will also bring the Coosa Furnace at Gadsden, with the red fossiliferous 
ores, into the Anniston district. 

Prof Toumey, in his geological report of Alabama, speaks of the locality 
where Anniston is now built as possessing exceptional advantages for iron manu- 
facture. A furnace was built here during the war for the manufacture of iron for 
the Confederate Government, and was destroyed by the Federal forces in 18G5 
and never rebuilt. 

ADVANTAGES FOR MANUFACTURES AND TRADE. 

Anniston possesses natural advantages as a manufacturing and l)usiness point 
surpassing that of any other place in the South. The neighboring mountains 
possess exhaustless supplies of coal easily and cheaply mined. Iron can ])e made 
at a lower cost than at any other point in the South, making no exception. For 
miles around there is a magnificent sweep of heavily timbered lands. From the 
surrounding forests the finest Georgia pine and hard-wood lumber are furnished. 
Anniston is a competitive railroad point, and commands favorable freight rates to 
all markets. Thus, for manufacturing, the raw material is cheap, easily accessible 
and of the best kind, and there is every facility for cheaply transporting the 
product to market. The remarkable and unvarying success of such manufac- 
turing enterprises as have been established in Anniston is convincing evidence of 
its superior advantages. 

For any kind of general business, Anniston is an inviting field. Tributary to 
the city, north and south on the East Tennessee, Virginia and Georgia Railroad, 
east and west on the Georgia Pacific Railroad, and for 50 miles south on the 
Anniston and Atlantic Railroad, is the richest and most populous agricultural 
country in the South, which, with the competitive freight rates that are, by loca- 
tion, the right of the city, gives to Anniston as a distributiug point for wholesale 
and jobbing houses a most favorable location. Several wholesale grocery and com- 
mission houses are doing a large and profitable business, and daily increasing the 
volume of trade and extending their territory. A most flattering opening is here 
presented for wholesale dry goods, notion, boot and shoe, hardware and agricul- 
tural implement houses. The trade is ready at hand and needs only to be sought 
to repay the merchant in handsome returns for his venture. There are two banks 
in the city — one national, the First National Bank of Anniston, capital $100,000, 
all paid in; Duncan T. Parker, president; Saml. Noble, vice-president, and O. E. 
Smith, cashier; the other, the banking house of R. J. Riddle & Co. They are 
both doing a very satisfactory business, and are liberal, public-spirited institutions, 
always ready to exert themselves in furthering any enterprise for the development 
of the grand resources of this section. 

To give some idea of the present extent of Anniston's commercial and 
manufacturing interests, the following description of the leading establishments 
now in existence there is presented : 



ALABAMA. 



259 



THE "WOODSTOCK IRON COMPANY. 

The officers of this concern are A. L. Tyler, president ; Sidney F. Tyler, vice- 
president ; Samuel Noble, secretary and treasurer ; Charles Noble, superintendent 
of furnaces and mines. 

The first furnace was projected by the present president and secretary in 1872. 
The furnaces and yards occupy about 50 acres. The location is Ul tliat could be 
desired, adjoining the main line of railroad, with several side tracks leading direct 
to furnaces. 




Furnace No. 1 w as blown in 12 
years ago; No. 2 in 1879, since 
which time they have never been 
stopped, except for occasional 
necessary repairs. With these fur- 
naces the cast-iron V-tube hot-blast 
pipes are used. The heat required 
for making charcoal car-wheel iron is not as great as that needed for making 
foundry iron ; therefore, the enormously expensive Whitwell ovens are not used 
The total height of Furnace No. 1 is 50 feet. The hearth is 5 feet 6 inches in 
diameter and the bosh 11 feet. The tuyeres are 4i inches, six in number, and 48 
mches in height. No. 2 is 50 feet higli, 6 feet hearth, 12 feet bosh, and has six 
U-mch tuyeres 50 inches high. Both furnaces are open fronts. Hydraulic hoists 
are used. No. 1 is only a 7-foot lift, owing to its being built on the side of a hill. 
The hoist at No. 2 is almost the entire height of the furnace. There are two 



260 ALABAMA. 

Blake crushers in use. The coal and ore sheds and roasting and screening depart- 
ments are well lilted up in every respect and are very extensive. 

The engines are alike at botli fui-naces, have a 48-inch stroke, 36-inch steam. 
C3dinder and 72-ine.h blowing cylinder. Tlie engine tliat drives the electric-light 
motor is supplied with steam direct from the furnace boilers, which is raised from 
waste gases in the furnace. 

Tlie mines have been worked (a portion of them within the city limits) since 
1872. Millions of tons have been taken out, but millions more are left, and the 
deeper the mines go down the liner is the quality of the ore, while the width of 
the deposits mcreases. Tlie ore is the brown h(;matite, yielding 50 per cent. iron. 

At the mines ai'e three ore washers, which wash from 40 to 50 tons each per 
day. The washers are run by 15-horse-power engines, and 12 carts are used for 
bringing the ore to the washers, from which it is loaded on the cars. A tramway 
is shortly to be laid from the mine to the dumps. 

In addition to the two furnaces in the city, the company own two on the line 
of the Anniston and Atlantic Railroad, a line constructed by them, and penetra- 
ting for 50 miles the rich mineral and agricultural countiy which lies to the 
southwest. One of these furnaces is at the foot of a mountain. The ore is mined 
up on the slope, and is literally slided into the fire. A more perfect arrangement 
and juxtaposition of resources is not possible. 

The history of iron manufacture at Anniston has been one of phenomenal 
success. Since its furnaces were built the iron industry has suffered the severest 
depressions it has ever known, and the fires have been extinguished in the most 
favored regions. Anniston has never known what it was to see a cold furnace, 
and the fame of its fine iron has extended throughout the whole country. The 
great enterprises of the Woodstock Iron Company, representing an investment of 
many millions, are flourisliing in spite of the financial depression which, during 
the past few years, has proven fatal to so many similar establishments. The man- 
agement of this company recognized at the beginning the importance of having 
an organized force of contented labor, and to this end they have always thought 
first of the comfort of their employees, and then of their own gain. Knowing 
that, in the manufacture of pig iron, labor is the great factor, and that it being 
healthy, contented, comfortably housed, and a proper regard paid to its moral 
w^anls, the greatest possible results would be achieved, there has been no effort 
spared to make the lives of the working people bright and hajjpy. As they 
anticipated, their pains have been richly rewarded, and it can be safely asserted 
that the same results in actual wealth created would, at any other point in the 
South, have required 25 per cent, more labor. 

THE ANNISTON CAR W^HEEL WORKS. 

In 1882 the works of Noble Bros, w^ere moved from Rome, Ga., to Anniston^ 
for the manufacture of car wheels and axles, steam engines and heavy castings. 
The works comprise a two- story brick machine shop 50x150 feet, a foundry 84x 
335 feet, and the forge, 80x215 feet, and are built with every modern improvement, 
with hydraulic cranes for handling everything. The car wheel foundry has two 
cupolas with a melting capacity of 40,000 pounds per hour, and capable of turning 
out 300 car wheels per day. The machine shops are provided with improved 
machinery and tools for boring wheels, turning axles and constructing engines 
and heavy machinery, the whole operated by a 120-horse power Corliss beam 
engine. The rolling mill and steam forge for making car and locomotive axles 
contains three steam hammers, together with a 200-horse-power engine for driving 
the rolls for working up scrap iron into muck bar ready for the steam hammer. 
The puddling furnaces have been provided for working up charcoal pig iron with. 



ALABAMA. 



261 




263 ALABAMA. 

the wrought iron scrap into axles. Tlie entire plant of this firm is one of the 
largest and most complete of its kind in the Southern States. The wheels are 
manufactured of the charcoal iron produced at the Anniston and Clifton furnaces. 
It is unsurpassed for car-wheel purposes; is strong and of good chilling prop- 
erties. The wheels are all guaranteed for 50,000 miles, and many of them run 
150,000 miles. They are in use by most of the principal railroads in the South. 

The tracks of the Georgia Pacific, East Tennessee, Virginia and Gc^orgia and 
Anniston and Atlantic Railroads all run into the car-wheel works. The office is 
elegantly fitted ; it contains a large fire-proof vault, and is more suggestive of that 
of a bank in a large city than a factory. 

Messrs. John and William Noble are the managing partners of the concern. 
Their car wheels havG obtained a reputation secontl to none in the South, and 
they are bolii practical machinists and gentlemen of great business capability. 

THE COTTON MILL 

U a handsome three-story brick building, the grounds in front of which are most 
attractive, being laid out with flower beds and rare and choice plants. It is owned 
by the Anniston Manufacturing Company, an incorporated company, of which A. 
L. Tyler is president, J. B. Goodwin, treasurer, and II. Hampson, superintendent. 
Adjoining are four iron fire-proof Avarehouses, which have a capacity for storing 
6,000 bales of cotton. 

The machine shop is furnished with two lathes, a planer and upright drill run 
by steam power. There is also a carpenter and blacksmith shop. This places the 
company in a position to do all their own repairs in the mill. The picker room 
has two breakers and three finishing and lapping machines, manufactured by 
Whitehead & Athertou, of Lowell, Mass. The card room contains 48 Biddeford 
cards and 48 Franklin Foundry cards, which run 12 in a section. The spinning 
room has a total number of 11,C38 spindles (the highest number in the State) and 
six Lewiston warpers. The slasher room contains two Lowell hot air dressers. 
The weave shop, on the first floor, has 3~0 Lewiston looms. Tlie ch^th room, for 
finishing, folding, baling and stamping, is supplied with Lowell machinery for the 
difl'erent purposes. The motive power is a Buckeye engine of 300 horse-power, 
supplied by five boilers manufiictured by Noble Bros. The building is supplied 
throughout with automatic sprinklers, fire-plugs with hose attached on each floor 
and hydrants surrounding the mill, which is close to the water-works. For the 
comfort of the hands, dressing rooms are provided on each floor. The number of 
hands employed is 270. 

■The Anniston Mills are the largest in Alabama. They manufacture sheetings 
and shirtings, with a capacity of 115,000 yards per week, averaging 53^ yards to 
the loom per day of 10 hours. This product is shipped to New Orleans, Texas,. 
New York, and the larger towns and cities of the South. The water for the mill 
is supplied by the Anniston water-vvorks and two fine springs which feed a large 
reservoir in tho yard. 

The village at the rear of the works is owned by the company, and contains 
50 well-built and substantial houses, in which the factory hands reside. 

ANNISTON FOUNDRY. 

This foundry', formerly of Cartersville, Ga., has been removed to Anniston 
and established on a larger scale. It was run at Cartersville in connection with 
the Georgia Ctir Company. The buildings are substantial and commodious. 
Murray & Stevenson are the proprietors, who manufacture all the castings for the 
Anniston Car Company with the exception of wheels, and do all the work for 
the Woodstock Iron Company's furnaces here and at Clifton, besides builders' 
castings and a general repair business. 



ALABAMA. 



363 



THE ICE FACTORY 

is owned by an incorporated company, of which W. J. Rushton is president, W. 
J. Cameron secretary and treasurer, and F. W. Dixon manager. The factory is 
run by a Boyle ice machine and has an output of three tons per day. It is work- 
ing to its full capacity at the present time, and will soon have to enlarge to meet 
the increasing demand. 

These are a few of the establishments that have given to Anniston its char- 
acter as a manufacturing city, for it is distinctively that ; but they are only a hint 
of w^hat the future will show. The cheapness of iron and coal, the near prox- 
imity of almost exhaustless supplies of the finest timber of all kinds, the trans- 
portation facilities for the distribution of products — these and other advantages 
are leading to the establishment of manufactures of various kinds. Factories for 
the manufacture of furniture, of agricultural implements, of carriages, wagons, 
ttc, of hardware specialties, of railroad supplies, of stoves, and all the varied 
articles into which wood and iron enter, will be called into existence. Some are 





.4 




Anniston Inn — Grand Staircask. 



there now doing a flourishing business. Among other enterprises, there are two 
planing mills in constant operation. Fine residences and storehouses are in pro- 
cess of construction, and its mercantile business is rapidly extending. There are 
scores of handsome retail stores with excellent stocks. Two wholesale houses do 
considerable jobbing, and send their drummers to contest with Atlanta, Birming- 
ham and Montgomery for tlie trade of the neighboring towns. 

THE WATER-WOKKS. 

In 1882 the construction of water- w^orks was commenced by the sinking of a 
well 10 feet in diameter and 80 feet deep, the whole Imed with a heavy cast iron 
curbing put in in segments, all bolted securely together. A splendid 150-horse- 
power beam engine was built and placed in position to pump t lie water from the 
well and force it to the reservoir, at an elevation of 280 feet, on one of the hills 
east of the city, one and a-half miles distant. Heavy iron pipes were laid through 



264 ALABAMA. 

the streets; ever 40 fire hydrants were put up at ditferent poiuts where property- 
was most exposed, and xVnniston provided with a supply of pure, clear, mountain- 
spruig water distributed over the town at a pressure of 100 pounds to the inch. 
The reservoir is always full, and the pressure constant and great enough to dis- 
pense with the use of fire engines, hose carriages only bemg employed, giving 
Anniston water facilities and fire protection unsurpassed by any city in the 
United States. 

ELECTRIC LIGHTS. 

In 1884 a contract was made with the Brush Electric Light Company for a 
plant to light the town and furnaces b}^ electricity. This was done by putting up 
arc lamps of 2,000 candle-power in different parts of the city. 

THE FAMOUS ANNISTON INN. 

This is a building deserving special mention. It was commenced in tlie fall 
of 1884, and finished and opened to the public in April, 1885. It has been pro- 
nounced the completest hotel in the South, and no man who has not seen it has a 
right to dispute that claim. It is a graceful specimen of Queen Anne architecture. 
Its very appearance is an invitation to rest and ease. The wide verandas extend- 
ing entirely around the first three floors indicate easy chairs and delicious br.eezes 
as far as they can be seen. The approach to the inn is past a 20-acre lawn, in the 
center of wdiich. a lake is being constructed, and up the graveled walks w^hich 
wind their way through the luxuriant blue-grass to the broad stone stairway at 
the main entrance. Tlie interior of the inn more than fulfills the expectation 
awakened by its external attractions. It is simply perfect in all its appointments. 
The interior finish is of solid w^ood polished like satin, and relieved by unique 
tiles and rich tapestry. The square windows with their stained glass and artistic 
draperies soften the scene with a peculiarly fine effect. The parlors are magnifi- 
cently furnished, and offer many tempting devices for the ease of their occupants. 
The bed rooms are large and perfectly ventilated, and from the second to the fifth 
floor are furnished in equal style and taste. But the most beautiful apartment in 
this elegant establishment is the dining room. Its walls are of oak, with exqui- 
sitely carved ornaments and the finest attainable polish. The glowing arches 
which span it in three places and the exquisite inlaid w^ork wiiicli shines about 
the windows in various designs are among the many things to admire in this 
royal room. Its tables are furnished with the clearest crystal, the brightest silver 
and the most beautiful china. The menu is in keeping with the elegance of the 
table settings. The entire house is lighted both with incandescent electric lights 
and with gas. It is kept in every respect up to the metropolitan standard, and is 
under the superintendence of INIr. Harry Ilardell, a w^ell-known Philadelphia hotel 
man, who is assisted by Mr. Pendleton, of Richmond, Va. From the verandas of 
the hotel a superb view is had. The breezes sweeping constantly through the 
wide arches and the fluttering curtains make the inn a most tempting summer 
resort, and it is arranged to be kept warm and cozy in winter, so that whenever 
the traveler finds shelter beneath its roof he can be comfortable and happy. The 
following detailed description of it is taken from the Atlanta Constitution: 

"The Anniston Inn has to-day been thrown open to the public, complete in 
every detail — nothing w^anting, nothing lacking, nothing left undone — a perfect 
marvel of finish, painstaking work, of convenience, of comfort, luxury and taste; 
furnished as has not been surpassed in this or any other country. 

"The situation itself is everything that could be desired, connnanding the 
most beautiful views in every direction, of the finest valley and mountain scenery 
in the South. The grounds have been laid off on every side and graded and 
sodded, shrubbery planted, walks graveled and rolled, drives paved, and the whole 



ALABAMA. 



265 



work made permanent and secure by the most thorough system of paving and 
drainmg. Tlie architecture of the inn is Queen Anne. Tlie first story is cut 
stone, the second of pressed brick, and the third and fourtli and fifth of heavy 
framed work, covered "with California redwood shingles and Georgia slate. The 
wide windows, heavy window frames, gables and large bay windows give a grand 
and picturesque effect. The interior, from the first floor to the top, is one beauti- 
ful piece of cabinet W' ork of oak, selected Southern pine, California redwood and 
■walnut. The ceilings, floor, beams, wainscoting and window, door casings, hall, 
offices, ladies and gentlemen's parlor, the sitting and dining room, have been fin- 
ished and highly polished, bringing out the natural grain of the wood as perfectly 
as the finest finished furniture. The heavy girders supporting the ceiling of the 
dining room, ladies' parlor and rotunda have been encased in oak beautifully pan- 
eled and polished. The grand staircase is a masteipiece of workmanship and art ; 
built of massive polished oak and flanked on every floor with beautiful stained- 
glass windows. The ladies' chambers are large, with wide windows, all opening 
so each window gives a view of the grand scenery beyond. Every room from 




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Anniston Inn — Smoking Alcove. 



iDasement to the top floor, as well as the broad porch that extends for nearly a 
quarter of a mile around the building, is lighted by the Brush incandescent light, 
the whole arranged either for gas or electricity. The building is heated through- 
out by hot water conveyed through pipes and register in the rooms and halls, 
while the baths and water closets are supplied on every floor with abundance of 
clean water from the mountain Avater-works, and the entire building protected in 
case of fire by hose on each floor; water always on at a high pressure from the 
mountain reservoir. The elevators are run by hydraulic pressure from the same 
source. 

"The ladies' parlor is carpeted with heavy Wilton carpet; the windows 
draped with heavy Turcoman old gold and velvet curtains suspended by brass 
poles and brackets. The furniture is upholstered with blue crimson silk plush; 
the tables are ebony beautifully inlaid; the chandeliers are yellow brass, with 
<ienter-piece of beaten copper ornamented with silver. The fireplaces in parlor. 



366 ALABAMA. 

gentlemen's sitting room and dining room are built of ' terra cotta;' are very wide^ 
and old-fashioned, extending from floor to ceiling, and are ornamented with heavy 
brass andirons and fenders. The upper sash of the windows of first floor, as well 
as the doors to ladies' parlor and main hall, are stained glass; the windows and 
archways all draped with rich Turcoman curtains. The furniture of oflfice and 
gentlemen's parlor is cherry, beautifully carved — the large arm and smokers' 
chairs, cherry, cushioned with olive green leather; the writing table, a desk of 
cherry, e'egantly finished. The dining room is a gem — a thing of beauty — well 
lighted with broad square and bay windows on every side — the upper sash, with 
small stained glass, being stationary; tlie lower being doors of large glass swing- 
ing on hinges, opening outward — all the windows being hung with heavy rich 
Turcoman curtains, the floor carpeted with heavy Hartford body Brussels carpets, 
as are the halls, office, gentlemen's parlor and smoking room, stairway, and every 
chamber in the inn. The chambers are large and splendidly ventilated — windows 
of double width, protected by linen window shades on spring rollers; next with 
folding inside blinds. The windows of every chamber are draped with costly 
Madras curtains. Many of the suites of rooms have bay windows and broad tile 
fireplaces, with massive paneled mantels of polished yellow pine and beveled 
plate-glass mirrors. The furniture of chambers is highly polished cherry and ash, 
each bed furnished wilh a spring and hair mattress; the pillows and bolsters of 
feathers of best quality. The blankets, quilts and linens are of the finest quality^ 
and in keeping with the surroundings. 

" The table linen is of the choicest quality ; the silver plain, but massive; the 
china and glass are in keeping with the whole. Two hundred guests can be com- 
fortably seated. The children's and servants' dining rooms are fitted up in the 
same manner as the main dining room. The inn has two large refrigerators on 
the ground floor capable of holding a car load of meat and fruit, and one large 
refrigerator for general storage, and a smaller one on kitchen floor for daily use. 
On the first floor of the building known as the annex are the steam laundry, iron- 
ing room, bakery and boiler room, with two 40-horse-power locomotive boilers to 
heat the building and run the electric engines. On the second floor is the kitchen, 
serving room, china and silver room and pantry, all fitted in the most thorough 
manner. The two floors above are the servants' quarters, being a small inn of 
itself, the rooms being nicely furnished and carpeted, with bath rooms and closets 
on each floor." 

AS A PLACE OF RESIDENCE. 

Anniston combines unexampled advantages as a manufacturing and business 
center, with all that can be desired to make up the attractions of a delightful and 
healthy home. The site of this town possesses every feature that an experienced 
engineer would desire in selecting a perfect location for a city. It is the highest 
point on a railroad in Alabama. The beautiful valley in which it is situated lies 
at the foot of Blue Mountain range, 800 feet above tidewater, and, sloping from 
the east and west to the center, with a gentle fall toward the south, there is 
afforded the most perfect natural drainage. This natural advantage has been sup- 
plemented by a splendid system of drainage constructed by the founders of the 
city. The Blue Mountain range towers 1,000 feet above the valley, and its pic- 
turesque slopes present the most attractive building sites, from which the cya is 
delighted ])y long stretches of beautiful scenery and extended views of the country 
beyond, to a distance of 30 miles or more. 

The three essentials of a good home are: 1st. Pure air. 2d. Good water. 
3d. A salubrious climate. All of these are to be found at Anniston. The air 
sweeps over upland valle3^s and table-lands nearly 1,000 feet above the sea level; 
pure and sparkling water from the mountain ranges is obtained, while the climate 



ALABAMA. 



267 



is delicious the year through. Its pure air from pine-clad mountains, its pure 
water, its absolute freedom from all malarial influences and from mosquitoes, its 
equable climate— free from the rigorous winters of the North and from the 
oppressive heat of less elevated localities South— make this, in point of health 
and comfort, equal to any locality on this continent. In addition to natural 
charms, everything that could contribute to the attractiveness of the city has 
been done. It was completely surveyed and laid off before a house was built ; 
then the streets were planted with shade trees and tunneled with sewers. The 
streets are broad and smooth, with wide, well-paved sidewalks. No expense or 
pains have been spared in grading and improving the streets, which are covered 
with crushed slag, and rolled down to a perfection of hard, smootl', clean surface, 
splendid for riding and driving. A finely-constructed turnpike road across the 




Anniston Inn — A Chamber. 



mountain east of Anniston to the beautiful Choccolocco Valley beyond will afford 
a drive over what is probably the finest highway in Alabama. The city is lighted 
by electricity, the streets, the hotel, opera house, furnaces, etc., all being illuminated 
by the Brush system. There is a fine system of public schools. There are five 
churches, besides those for colored persons. There are now in course of erection- 
two churches, which, for architectural beauty and elegance of interior finish, will 
compare favorably with any in the oldest and Avealthiest portions of our country. 
There are beautiful parks and shade trees. The stores are fine, solid, commodious 
brick structures, some with handsome iron fronts and large plate-glass windows. 
One is struck with the neat, clean, well-to-do appearance of the business houses, 
and the entire absence of the small shed and shanty stjie of stores comnicm in. 
towns the size of Anniston. The merchants are brisk, live, vigorous; they aE 



■268 



ALABAMA. 




ALABAMA. 269 

seem to be bui-^ and prosperous. There is an air of tlirift pervading everything. 
The residents, from one end of the town to tlie other, seem imbued with a sense 
of cleanliness and neatness and order. The influence of the founders of the town 
has made itself felt everywliere, and the streets and buildings are kept in perfect 
condition. Everybody seems proud of the town and anxious to do his part 
towards keeping up its reputation. In and around the city are some magnificent 
private residences, the homes of proprietors of manufacturing establishments 
here. Those outside of the city have extensive grounds, with handsome lawns 
ornamented with evergreens, flowers, etc., and provided with all the comforts and 
conveniences and luxurious appointments that could be possessed in suburban 
homes around any large city. Fine lawns, terraces, orchards, shrubbery, orna- 
mental gardening, conservatories, &c., show the refined tastes of the people of 
■ Ann i St on. 

There are suburban towns for the families of the men employed in the shops; 
another for the factor}' people, and another where the homes of the colored people 
are gathered. All are laid out regularly and are made attractive. 

The working classes are well paid and well cared for. They live in homes — 
not in hives. Their cottages are models of neatness and comfort. They are built 
of the best material, painted and plastered, and furnished with water, which comes 
gushing down from the reservoir that supplies the entire city. Attached to each 
cottage is a quarter of an acre, which is devoted to flowers and vegetables. The 
pride of the cottagers in beautif34ng their premises is remarkable, some of them 
displaying unusual taste and skill. One who has never seen a crowded manufac- 
turing town in the North or in England cannot appreciate the comforts of the 
Anniston mechanics. Compare these pretty cottages, with their ventilation, their 
vine-covered porches and their blooming gardens, with one of those enormous 
tenements where the men, women and children are packed into narrow rooms, 
shut out from the light and the breeze, and shut in with discomfort and disease. 
The difference can be read in the appearance of the people who are placed in 
these contrasted conditions. The pale, pathetic faces, with their weary, timid 
look, so often seen in great manufactories, are unknown in this place, where air 
and exercise, clean houses, pure water and wholesome food are afforded to all. 

Rents are very light. Four-room cottages are only $7 a montli, and six-room 
cottages only $10. 

The city is surrounded by some of the richest counties in the State. The 
fertile lands and the needs of the growing population of the town offer induce- 
ments to the farmer and truck raiser. The surrounding country offers rare 
attractions to the sportsman, the mountains and forests abounding in game. 

AS A RESORT. 

The numerous attractions that give to Anniston its charm as a home also 
make it a delightful place of resort for those seeking health or pleasure. The 
climate, for its mild equability, is unsurpassed. The heavily timbered mountains, 
the extensive pine forests beyond, the great elevation above the sea, the cool days 
and cool nights in summer, the mild and even temperature of winter, the entire 
absence of those conditions that breed mosquitoes and miasma, epidemic diseases 
being unknown; the beautifully sodded fields as a result of 10 years' persistent 
cultiA'ation of the grasses, the thousands of water-oak shade trees, the beautiful 
drives, the springs of cool, refreshing freestone water coming from the base of the 
hills, combine to perfect in Anniston the ideal summer and winter resort. And it 
is for this purpose that the Anniston Inn, described above, was built and furnislied 
in such magnificent style. Persons going to Florida in the fall or returning North 
in the spring will find this inn a most entrancing place for a short sojourn. The 



370 



ALABAMA. 




ALABAMA. 271 

«top here will break the fatigue of a long ride. The railroads will give travelers 
every facility for stopping over as long as they may desire, and will protect them 
in their through-rate tickets. 

Anniston is destined to a great future. Its healthy and beautiful location, 
splendid climate, enormous mineral wealth and rich tril)utary agricultural country 
give it such material advantages that it will continue to increase in population 
and wealth much more rapidly than in the past. 

You have here a town complete in all its appointments, without a dollar of 
floating or bonded debt, and protected by a provision embodied in the town 
charter that no tax of more than one halt of 1 per cent, shall be assessed for 
municipal purposes. 

There is no other place in the Southern States so healthy, so beautifully 
situated ; none where the air is purer, the water clearer, and where there are so 
many pleasant inducements to the full enjovnicnt of these luxuries of life, as in 
Anniston, 

IRONATON, 

in Talladega County, Alabama, 20 miles from Anniston, is owned and was built b}'" 
the Clifton Iron Company, and it is beautifully situated, with every provision for 
drainage, and laid off in broad streets planted in shade trees. The company com- 
menced the construction of Furnace No 2 in June, 1884, and completed and 
started it in May, 1885. This furnace is one (,f the finest in the South; is 55 feet 
high and 12-foot bosh ; is provided with two Whitwell stoves and Grittinger ore 
kilns for calcining ore. It is built close to the ore banks. The furnace produces 
300 tons per week of standard charcoal car wheel and malleable iron — the iron 
being noted for its tenacity and excellent chilling properties, and being lower in 
phosphorus than any other ores in the State. The furnaces at Jenifer belonging 
lo this company are also supplied with ore from the mines at Ironaton, the pro- 
duct of both furnaces reaching 450 tons per week. 

The town and furnaces are supplied by Avater brought by a 10-inch main from 
a mountain stream two and a-half miles distant to a storage reservoir of 2.000,000 
gallons near the town, from whence it is distributed through the town to the fur- 
naces and to the ore mines for washing the ores. The town is obtaining consider 
able trade from the adjacent country, and is an important shipping point by the 
Anniston and Atlantic road for the people of the adjoining country. The "Wood- 
stock Iron Company keep quite a force of men mining and shipping ore to their 
works at Anniston. 

The officers of the Clifton Company are : Saml. Noble, president ; Sidney F. 
Tyler, vice-president; John E. Ware, secretary and treasurer; S. N. Noble, super- 
intendent. Directors: John E. Ware, Alfred L. Tyler, W. S. Gunnee, New York; 
*"Thos. T. Bouve, Boston. 

Ironaton is destined to become quite an iron manufacturing point, the ores 
being suitable for Bessemer steel, and existing in large quantity 



MISSISSIPPI. 



The State of Mississippi extends Iioni the 35tli degree of north latitude to 
latitude 80° 13', and measures in its greatest latitudinal extent 331.65 statute miles. 
In longitude it extends under the 31st degree of north latitude from the Alabama 
line, in longitude 88° 23', to Icmgitude 01° 4V, on the Mississippi River, and 
measures in its greatest longitudinal extent 227.7 statute miles. The area of the 
State is 46,340 square miles. 

There are probably few States in the Union concerning the aspect of whose 
surface erroneous impressions are more generally prevalent tlian is the case Avith 
Mississippi. Tlie reputed character of a comparatively small portion of its terri- 
tory — the Mississippi Bottom — is very commonly referred to the greater portion 
or to the -whole of the State, among whose features, swamps, marshes and mos- 
quitoes are thought to hold a prominent place. It may not be superfluous, 
therefore, to premise, that outside of the INIississippi Bottom, sand hills, with pine, 
black-jack and post-oak, are a very conspicuous feature in the landscape — the 
surface being generally hilly, though nowhere mountainous. Few of the ridges 
probably rise as high as 400 feet above the drainage of the country — the usual 
elevations of the hills above the minor watercourses being from 30 to 120 feet — 
and none probably are above 800 feet in absolute elevation. 

For the classification of soils, I shall divide the State into six grand divisions, 
to wit : Tlie Mississippi Bottom, the Blutf Formation, the Yellow Loam Region, 
the Prairie Region, the Central Prairie Region, the Pine Woods Region. 

I find in a pamphlet recently issued in the interest of the Georgia Pacific 
Railway, and written by Messrs. Campbell and Ruflher, two eminent scientists of 
Virginia, the following: 

THE ALLUVIAL SOIL OF THE YAZOO DELTA. 

The term Mississippi Bottom properly belongs to the entire plain betw'een the 
bluff's within which the Mississippi River runs, beginning at the The Chains, 
thirty miles above the mouth of the Ohio, and extending to the Gulf of Mexico. 
The Yazoo Delta is the part of tliis plain lying between Memphis and Vicksburg, 
and is properly so named from the Hict that the Yazoo River, with its tributaries, 
drains the whole of it. This vast delta is ellipsoidal in shape ; its length is 180 
miles, and its greatest width 75 miles. Its area is over 7,000 square miles, by 
Prof Harper's computation, and nearly all of it is in Mississippi. It is crossed by 
the Georgia Pacific Railway near the line of its greatest width. Much of the 
delta is liable to inundation, and on this account was long avoided by planters. 
But, tliirty years ago, the Mississippi River— which had communicated witli the 
delta through the Yazoo Pass and other bayous — was excluded by levees, and, ex- 
cept where broken lately, these are now continuous from tlie mouth of the Yazoo 
River, near tlie southern extremity of the delta, to its northern extremity near 
Memphis. Were the levees made secure, or the jetty system of deepening the 
channel resorted to, as probably will be the case, the delta generally would be pro- 



MISSISSIPPI. 273 

tected from inundation; and local levees would protect and dry off much of the 
interior now subject to everflow. Congress has taken the matter in hand with 
an energy which promises the best results. 

All the soil reached by the plough is of two classes — loam and clay. The 
loam lies in ridges, five or six feet high, along the banks of the streams. The clay 
underlies the loam throughout the delta, and is reached between the loam 
ridges where the surface has received less deposit. When swamps occur they are 
e(iui-distant between the loam ridges. These loam belts act as levees, and because 
of their dry and elevated character are preferred for building sites. 

The dark loams are easy to work, quick, nearly always in good mechanical 
condition, and when summer rains are seasonable, produce the largest crops. 

The Blue Grass region of Kentucky will not be able to surpass the " buck- 
shot," or clay lands, in the production of grass when the war waged upon it by 
the planters here shall have ceased. A planter, not far from Greenville, sowed 
grass on his land, and a neighbor sued out an injunction against him. Fortun- 
ately, when the case came to trial, the court decided that grass on a neighbor's 
farm was an affliction that had to be borne. 

Cattle and liogs thrive on the delta almost without being fed. The wild 
grasses in summer, and the switch cane in winter, keep the cattle in good order; 
whilst roots, acorns, beech-nuts, pecan nuts, etc., furnish abundant sui)plics of 
food for liogs. The whole delta is burdened with animal and vegetable life, and 
nothing short of a volume can describe its wealth and all its attractions. 

This region has a most unmerited reputation for ill health. Unquestionably, 
malaria abounds in September, but it is manageable, and the people are manifestly 
healthy. Having been there during the hottest spell of last summer, I would 
not now fear to return to it at any time. The timbered lands can be bought at 
from $1 to $5 an acre, and the improved lands at from |o to $30 an acre. If there 
is any better investment in the world, I know not where it is. 

The Mississippi Bottom, which once reached to the mouth of the Ohio River, 
has justly been compared to the delta of the Nile ; but we are in the habit of re- 
garding as an evil what the Egyptians regard as their greatest blessing, viz., 
inundations. The great Mississippi plain can be, and will be, protected against 
floods; and yet floods made it what it is, and would build it higher and maintain 
its fertility. As long as it remains insufficiently protected, however, planters 
must be prepared for freshets. Since the drainage of the Yazoo Delta has been 
improved, the cotton planters have been clearing away the forests and substi- 
tuting crops of corn and cotton, but the development of this kingdom of agricul- 
tural wealth has scarcely commenced. The delta of the Nile has never approached 
in productiveness that of the Yazoo River. 

Inasmuch as this great plain, which extends from Yicksburg to Memphis, and 
from Greenville, on the Mississippi River, to the bluffs on the edge of Carroll 
County, thus embracing more than ten large counties, is destined to become as 
famous for its timber as for its soil and agricultural productions, j desire to give 
some clear idea of the enormous natural growth upon it. 

Probably not one-fourth of the plain is cleared ; and the other three-fourths, 
perhaps four-fifths, is covered with probably the heaviest forest on the American 
Continent. i have seen forests where the trees were more crowded, and were 
feeble and attenuated in consequence ; but here the trees usually have room for 
the full development of their trunks at least. The foliage is high overhead, whilst 
the great trunks seem sound and healthy, and stand in endless and impressive 
columns around the traveler. Occasionally I found too much crowding, and 
hence smaller trees, constituting areas of what would be called simply good 
timber; but the mills which attack these forests must always be supplied with the 



274 MISSISSIPPI. 

double saw arrangement, when circular saws are used, many of the logs being 
much too large to be cut by a single saw. 

Except some similar country in Arkansas, Louisiana and Tennessee, there 
are no such lands on this continent, if in the world, in point of fertility and dura- 
bility, as the Yazoo River bottoms. The crops of corn, cotton and oats that have 
been and are made there are enormous. If this land were cleared and well culti- 
vated, it could be made to produce enough cotton for the world's present demand. 

This country is now rapidly improving. One great trunk line traverses it, 
running from New Orleans to Memphis. Another road will cross it, running from 
Canton, Mississippi, to Arkansas City, Arkansas. It has been running to Yazoo 
Citj' for some time. Another road is projected to cross the delta from Greenville, 
Mississippi, and is built some distance east 

THE BLUFF FORMATION. 

The Bluff Formation forms an excellent soil, decidedly one of the most fertile 
m the State. But a careless and unnatural agriculture has almost completely 
worn out the soil. The territory of this formation extends to about twelve miles 
east from the Mississippi. 

Tlie Yellow Loam Region, called by Prof Harper the Middle Tertiary or 
Miocene Formation, extends from the boundary line of Tennessee, or from the 
35th degree of north latitude, to the line of tlie Eocene Formation, very nearly 
along a line determined by 82" 30' of north latitude, and extends, westward, to 
the alluvium of the Yazoo and Mississippi Rivers, where it has been washed away 
to a great extent, and the remaining portion overlaid by the sediment of the 
rivers. Eastward it extends to the Cretaceous Formation. Within those bound- 
aries it comprises about 10,602 square miles. 

The surface of the newer Tertiary Formation is generally very hilly. Its 
upper members consist most generally of different kinds of sand or clay, which 
are very easily washed and swept away by the water of the atmospherical pre- 
cipitations, and high hills and deep vallies or gullies of erosion and denudation 
characterize it everywhere, and render it, in some parts, unfit, in others difficult 
for cultivation. The surface of this formation is, with very few exceptions, 
nearly equally hilly from the line of Tennessee to within a short distance from its 
southern boundary. Near this boundary it ajipears generally a little more level. 

Towards the west, along the line of the alluvium of the Yazoo and Mississippi 
Rivers, it is bordered by an uninterrupted chain of considerable hills, which have 
prevented those rivers from encroaching farther eastward, and which cannot be 
considered as originally formed by the rivers. 

It Avould be needless and too tedious to tell of this hill and that valley, of the 
soils of tlie various localities. Some are very fertile and easy to cultivate; some 
are the reverse. Nor would it be worth while to tell of all the streams and 
springs ; and a map will tell the main rivers and their courses. The country is 
watered by rivers and numerous creeks and streams. 

This Yellow Loam Region embraces most of eastern De Soto County, all of 
Marshall, all of Benton, much of western Tippah, all of Lafayette, most of eastern 
Panola, most of eastern Tate, a narrow strip of eastern Tallahatchee, all of 
Yalabusha, all of western Calhoun, all of Webster, all of Montgomery, east 
Grenada, east Carroll, east Holmes, all of Attala, all of Choctaw, northeast Yazoo, 
north Madison, all Leake, all Winston, all Neshoba, part of Kemper, Lauderdale, 
Newton (greater part), and northeast corner of Scott. 

The southern division of the Illinois Central Railroad, commonly known as 
the " Big J," traverses the western part of this area. Passengers, seeing how 
badly washed and hugely scarred by denudation is a good deal of the country 



MISSISSIPPI. 375 

along that road, are very apt to bo badly impressed with tlie country, and to form 
hasty conclusions adyerse to it. If they ^yill stop off at many places and inspect, 
they will have their impressions much modified or totally changed. 

THE PRAIRIE REGION. 

i come now to an area of Mississippi that it would be a pleasure to write 
much about. It is its own eulogium when it is in its season and has a chance. 
It was "the granary of the Confederacy" during the late war. It is one of the 
prettiest agricultural countries, so far as mere configuration and soil go, to be 
found anywhere; and no prairie-reared citizen of the United States could ever 
see it as it ought to be seen witliout being almost entranced with it. The great 
drawbacks to it are general lack of water, except in cisterns or artesian wells, and 
mud in winter. Fences generally are wanting, and good residences; but the day 
will certainly come when this country will be beautified beyond conception. 

This Prairie Region lies in a string of irregular areas in KemjDer, Noxubee, 
Lowndes, Oktibbeha, Clay, Monroe and Chickasaw Counties — their combined 
area, according to Prof. Harper, amounting to nearly 150,000 square miles. The 
prairie lands are leyel or gently undulating, with dark, heayy, calcareous soils that 
are often simply clay marls or rotten limestone. These prairies are in some places 
exceedingly rich, but are not always productive, owing sometimes to hard usage, 
but often to their mechanical condition, which calls for a loosening treatment. 
The whole Prairie Country is based on a white, chalky limestone, which shows '.n 
patches, and occasionally on the streams in mural cliffs. Along the Tombigbee 
River, in sight of the railroad, it reminds one of the Dover Cliffs on the English 
Channel. The patches of rotten limestone cropping out in the fields annoy the 
farmer; but it has been proved by experiment that, with a dressing of rough 
vegetable matter, these spots will grow clover, and ultimately sod over. A more 
l)eautiful and desirable country than is this Prairie Region, or one more surely 
destined to celebrity, is not to be seen anywhere. It is adapted to all crops 

The sub-divisions of the Cretaceous Formation, except the Rotten Limestone 
Group, are so limited in area and so comparatively unimportant, that I shall give 
them but slight attention. The Rotten Limestone Group embraces in its area one 
of the best countries in the United States. The surface of its territory is gener- 
ally level or but slightly undulating. When high ridges do occur, their main mass 
is the limestone itself, on wiiich the orange sand formation is wanting, or present 
only to an inconsiderable thickness or in patches — the surface formation being 
mostly stiff clays, which underlie the prairies. Hence, a great dearth of naturally 
available water during the dry season characterizes the region in an economical 
point of view. The material of the formation itself is of great uniformity — a 
soft, chalky rock of a white or pale bluish tint, with very little sand, consisting of 
variable proportions of fat, tenacious clay and white carbonate of lime in crystals 
extremely minute, and with some shells of infusoria. The stratum is of great 
thickness and uniformity of character on its southwestern border, borings of 700 
to 1,000 feet being no uncommon occurrence in South Chickasaw, East Oktib- 
beha, Noxubee and Northeast Kemper. 

The Eutaw Group offers no strikingly characteristic features. By far the 
larger portion of its surface is thickly covered with the strata of the orange sand, 
from which the upper sandy members of this group are often distinguished with 
great difficulty. Its structure is bluish black or reddish laminated clays, often 
lignitic, alternating with and usually overlaid by, non-effervescent sands, mostly 
(though not always) poor in mica, and of a gray or j'ellow tint. 

Its territory is the border of almost the whole of east Mississippi, where it 
meets Alabama, from near the north line of Lowndes County to very near the 



276 MISSISSIPPI 

north line of the State, at Tennessee ; save a very narrow and jagged line in the 
extreme eastern part of Tishomingo County, and a very small area in east 
Itawamba, wliere both counties abut on Alabama. 

The Ripley Group is the main source of the Tombigbee River, and has many 
beautiful streams with fertile valleys. 

THE TOMBIGBEE SAND GROUP. 

This grouj) represents a long, narrow strip of country in the eastern part of 
the State, running from the north line of Tennessee to a little below Columbus. 
In Lowndes County it occupies an area equivalent to five or six townships. For 
nearly fifty miles it is hardly three miles wide. For the upper half of its area (say 
foi-ty miles) it is about two townships wide. Its main course is nearly due south. 

The region occupied by the Eutaw and Tombigbee Sand Group is hilly and 

sandy, and the soil generally inferior. Springs are abundant and their water 

mostly freestone. 

THE RIPLEY GROUP. 

The surface of the territory occupied by this, the uppermost stage of the Cre- 
taceous in Mississippi, is generally hilly and to a great extent thickly covered 
with the strata of the orange sand, which have filled up the gaps occasioned by 
fracture or denudation in the ridges formed by the upheaved strata of the group. 
Small prairie spots are met with in many localities, but usually on or around 
isolated hilltops or ridges where some soft calcareous stratum has approached the 
surface. 

In entering upon the territory of this formation from the west side, on which, 
in South Tippah, Pontotoc and North Chickasaw, it is bordered by the flatwoods, 
there is a very striking change in the aspect of the country, which suddenly 
becomes hilly and broken, the hillsides coming down steeply into the valleys, and 
exhibiting outcrops of hard limestone, while the surface is covered with deep- 
tinted orange sand. 

Springs become abundant, and the growth of vigorous black and Spanish 
{7'ed) oak and hickory, intermixed with lime-loving trees like the poplar, walnut, 
butternut, linn, umbrella tree and locust on the hills, and of the sycamore, honey 
locust, wild plum and red bud in the valleys, indicate the change of soil. In some 
portions of Pontotoc County there is a pretty regular rise as we advance eastward 
from the flatwoods, the limestone strata, which at first w^ere at the foot, gradually 
ascending to the top of the hills of the Pontotoc Ridge, until a sudden descent 
brings us down to the level territory of the rotten limestone, at the east foot of 
the ridge. Such is the case on the road from Rocky Ford via Tardyville to Ellis- 
town, and on the Tocapolr. and Camarago Road via Redland. The outcropping 
ledges of rock there form the crest of the ridge, which runs parallel to the strike 
of the stratum. 

This group begins at the north end of the State, and terminates near Houston, 
in ChicRasaw County. It embraces much of the eastern half of Tippah and Pon- 
totoc Counties, and is a sort of wedge inserted in the upper half of Chickasaw, 
about midway, east and west, in its area. A very little portion of it is in West 
Tishomingo. In this group is found the backbone of North Mississippi — the 
Pontotoc Ridge; and, indeed, it makes the "divide" of the waters far south, find- 
ing its termination in the Summerville Ridge, down in Kemper County; and the 
hills, as "outliers," running still further south. 

Prof. Hilgard, before describing the Prairie Region proper, writes of the sur- 
rounding country, characterizing the western portion of the area as gently undu- 
lating oak uplands, interspersed with spots and patches of black and of bald prairie, 
with wide fertile bottoms. East is a more hilly region, with a poor, sandy soil, 



MLSSLS.SIPPI. 077 

whose prevalent timber is sliort-leaf pine, black-jack and post-oak, together with 
chestnut — the bottoms being narrow but fertile. This is the character of the Pine 
Hills of Northeast Mississippi, whose supply of water is generally dependent on 
and bears the characteristics of the orange sand formation 

The prairies proper— level or very gently undulating tracts possessing o, deep 
black, heavy soil, on which timber is very much scattered or altogether wanting— 
form belts or series of disconnected patches, having, on the whole, a north and 
south course, and are interspersed with tracts of a more rolling surface, mostly 
with a shallow, pale, light soil, timbered with the common upland oaks — Spanish, 
{red,) post, black-jack, and sometimes red and black (black) and scarlet {SjyanisJi) 
oaks — which, though usually, perhaps, of average fertility, is sometimes absolutely 
poor, as may be gathered from the scrubby, stunted growth it then bears, the pro- 
ductiveness varying, it appears, very nearly in proportion to the approach of the 
rotten limestone to the surface. Here we find not unfrequently, where these 
uplands slope off toward the creek bottoms, "hummock" lands, increasing in 
fertility as we descend; and in the bottoms themselves, (where the white rock is 
only a few feet under ground,) passing into black prairie soil, differing little from 
that on the ridges, though, perhaps, in general, it is somewhat lighter and richer 
in vegetable matter. 

On the western side the prairies are in much greater force, and are the ]u-e- 
dominant surface soil for considerable areas, as in parts of Madison and Hinds. 
In the eastern portion the country is spotted very much. 

The yellow loams of Madison and North Hinds are justly considered as being 
among tlie best uplands of the State; superior to the prairies as to "safeness," 
while little if at all inferior in productiveness ; like the Marshall table-lands, and 
about equally well suited, on an average, to corn and cotton. 

I confess that much of the eastern half of this prairie has extraordinary 
fascinations for me. The great varieties of soil is one great attraction. A few 
hundj-ed yards from the stiffest black fertile soil underlaid with limerock, and the 
soil jxw e.vceUence for clover, Kentucky blue grass and such, is to be found sandy 
loams fit for the peach, pear, sweet potato, and, in fact, ever}^ sort of fruit and 
vegetable possible to the climate; where swift, clear streams, teeming with fine 
fish, are dancing over golden sands and pebbles. The great attraction in stock 
raising is that, in wet seasons, one can turn the sheep and cattle on these sand}^ 
tracts, where they have a dry foot. And the well watered character of the lands, 
with the richness and limestone character, make them an ideal for stock raising 
purposes. 

These lands, in the eastern part, have been rather poorly situated — having 
indifferent railroad connections; but new combinations have brought them into 
new relationships with railroad facilities. The New Orleans and Northeastern 
Railroad is a very considerable help, and the Vicksburg and Meridian Railroad, 
at one time of comparative little importance, becomes a link in a trans-continental 
chain; and from being on an "off" road, now becomes on what will probably 
soon be one of the great thoroughfares across the continent. 

The lands in this belt have been selling for almost nothing. I have seen 
some most superbly timbered and very rich held at from $2 to $6 per acre. 

THE PINE WOODS REGION. 

The Pine Woods Region is a section only touched here and there, as it were, 
with the impress of development in much of its area, and which, with a large 
population of Scotch or French agriculturists, could be transformed, as can much 
of the same country south, into a land of beauty and plenty. 



278 MISSISSIPPI. 

Infertile in the main, it can be and has been made to yield immense crops; 
and its variety of products almost defies enumeration, and has no limit but 
climate. As fine uheat as can be produced can be raised there, and barley, rye, 
upland rice, com and buckwheat are all "at home." Sugar cane, too, does 
extremely well. 

The range of fruits is very great there. On the coast the orange, fig, pear, 
many varieties of grape, many small fruits do well, and even some varieties of 
summer apples. Higher up (leaving out the orange and tender fruits) almost 
every fruit j^ossible to the climate succeeds tliat will succeed at the north. Among 
grapes, the Delaware is superb ; and one of the most eminent grape growers gave 
this as his judgment, after thorough investigation. The pear and winter apples of 
several varieties are fine. As to peaches, I have never seen finer, although a long 
resident iu Central Delaware, and familiar with the peaches of other favored 
localities. 

Vegetables, it w^ould be superfluous to praise. The quality of coast vege- 
tables — Mobile, for instance — is now well-known. There the business of 
vegetable raising is of immense proportions, and it is growing on the coast, along 
the Jackson Railroad, the Mobile and Ohio Railroad, and the New Orleans and 
Northeastern. In diseases of the throat and lungs, the pine woods climate is 
rapidly gaining reputation for its ameliorating and curative effects. Florida only 
empliasizes by her vastly more renowned and popular patronage, by invalids, an 
effect common to those who seek the pine woods of Southern States. Nearly a 
decade ago, I collected testimony in abundance to demonstrate what Southern 
Mississippi would do towards lung and throat troubles by climate cure. Some 
astonishing attestations w^ere given of the cures and ameliorations incident to 
mere residence. And this is not peculiar to Mississippi. South Carolina, at 
Aiken; Georgia, at Thomasville; Alabama, at Citronelle, and other pkices only 
demonstrate virtues common to most of the pine woods country far enough 
south to share the benefits of a certain mitigation of the rigors of winter. At 
what point nature draws this cordon is undefinable. Years ago, while in pur- 
suit of statistics with reference to one ranttei and another, I Avas told by Sir 
John Crossle}^ M. P., who was then traveling in the United States in the interest 
of the Mississippi Valley Society, an English organization of which he was 
president, that we ought, in behalf of the South, and to eliminate a deeply rooted 
impression in the English mind that foreigners could not stand field labor in the 
South, to endeavor to extirp-ate this most injurious belief. I immediately sent out 
circular letters to all the newspapers printed in Mississippi and Louisiana, asking 
all readers of European rearing and of Northern and Western life to send me tes- 
timonials as to the point in question, I had letters enough to fill a volume, 
showing that field labor was prosecuted with but little more discomfort and with 
as good health as in their former homes. 

Though in strictness foreign to tlie topic of Mississippi, these questions, in 
justice to the South, must find a discussion somewhere, and had as well be gotten 
rid of here as elsewhere, I therefore give, under this topic of health, a letter written 
by me several years ago to answer enquiries of northern men, and taken from 
a paper called "The New South." Its language I nu\an for far broader applica- 
tion than was its intent when written, xt was written from a town in the pine 
woods of Southwest Mississippi: 

First and last, there have been addressed to me many inquiries as to the 
healthfulness of onr climate and locality, and while I may have, in a general 
way, answered them, I have never done so with the i)arti('ularity that the import- 
ance of tlie subject demands. Nor is it possible, iu the scojje of such a letter as 
your columns would admit the publication of, to do justice to the subject. Still,, 
with your permission, I will deal more elaborately vrith it tlian I have heretofore. 



MISSISSIPPI. 279 

"It goes without saying" that we have a larger proportion of deaths from 
malarial diseases than from any other. These diseases are the great bugbear of 
the Southern climate, and they are the favorite and most effective topic of invec- 
tive to all who seek to deter immigration or sincerely dread to seek a refuge from 
unrequited toil or bleak and dreary winters in the inhospitable climes or unre- 
munerative fields of labor far North and West. To say that we nave eight months 
of beautiful weather; bland climate from October to May; that lands are cheap; 
that the products of our soil are incomparably more varied and productive than 
theirs, passes for little or nothing with many of them. They concede it, perliaps, 
but they say, with long visages, in a solenm voice, " You have fever and ague," 
and that determines them to bear it, and reconciles them to the long dreary winters 
of their homes. 

This letter will, therefore, endeavor to eradicate from the minds of many 
persons the very erroneous impressions that this locality is so unhealthy, because 
of malarious diseases. I would not undertake to prove that our climate is superb 
for pulmonary affections and rheumatism; that we are comparatively exempt 
from enteric, cerebro-spinal and typhus fevers, which are such a scourge else- 
where; or that we are very little subject to fatal cases of intestinal diseases.* We 
shall assume that as all yielded. 

But the charge against our climate, above all, is that it is a malarious one, 
and the dread of it engrosses the apprehensions of m»)st who think of coming 
here, or furnishes the most credible imputation of our detractors. 

Flinging very much of everything else aside, therefore, I reply to this great 
bugaboo. If any one will consult the map of the vital statistics of the ninth 
census — 1870 — there will be found most startling facts. No mere guess-work that, 
but hard, dry, relentless truth, that deals with no hypotheses nor theories, but 
chronicles things as they are. Let that one, therefore, who seeks for enlighten- 
ment, tui'u to the map giving "Deaths from Malarial Diseases." He will there 
find this locality colored as No. II. He will, by examination, see that we are as 
healthy, with respect to malarial diseases, as a very large portion of Kansas, cpiite 
a portion of Nebraska, verv considerable portions of Iowa, large tracts of 
Missouri, a large slice of Illinois, the same of Indiana, the greater portion of 
Michigan, some of Ohio, a portion of Pennsylvania along the Susquehanna, a part 
of New York, and parts of Delaware and Mar3iand. But that is not all. He will 
find the malarial hue deeper on the map, and a larger per cent, by nearly a hun- 
dred, of deaths from malarial diseases in several States than here. Those States 
are, hirge tracts of Missouri, quite a portion of Illinois, a considerable area in 
Indiana, two areas of Michigan. All this may surprise readers, as it did the 
writer, but these are facts, and disenchanting as they may be, the stern reality- 
confronts us. 

But a consideration of the naked facts, as much as they enlighten, do not do 
justice to us. No consideration of the question which did'not involve a view of 
the habits of the people inhabiting this locality, would do justice to the question. 

Here, our people, in the main, are poor; when the}' get sick doctors are not 
sent for promptly, and bills for medicine are dreaded. 'Their houses are ill-built, 
and, in many cases, verv poor protection against wind and weather. They 
remind one of the "ruined tenement" in one of Lord Chatham's finest bursts: 
''They may be frail; the roofs may shake; the wind may blow through them; 
the storm may enter them." Then look at the fare, the habitual food of l)y far the 
larger proportion of our people — corn bread, bacon and collards. Another habit 
of many is to work in any kind of weather. Does a heav\^ cold rain come on, 
they stick to their work in the field, instead of unhitching teams and seeking 
shelter. 

Almost all the travel is done on horseback, or in heavy, slow wagons, where 
there is no protection from rain. I have seen men by the score come to court in 
midwinter, wet to the skin with a cold rain, after a ride of a dozen or twenty- 
miles, and trust to fires and whiskey to dry and warm them. They mount their 
horses, or get into wagons for an all-day jaunt, in the hardest of rains. 

Take the indoor life of many of them. Instead of building a little fire 
morning and evening in fall and spring, they disregard the precaution. Indeed, 
you may go into many houses in the best society South, and in midwinter you 
will find the inmates without fires, trusting to shivering and shuddering through 
the low temperature that chills the blood and sows the seed of fever and ague. I 



*This language will apply to much of the Pine Woods Region South, as, indeed, will most of the 
Statements of the letter. 



280 MISSISSIPPI. 

hardly remember ever to have eaten a meal in a Southern gentleman's house when 
there has been a fire in the eatini:^-room. Let a bri<i:lit (lay come in midwinter, 
(and there are many of them,) and the children are out in troops, barefooted and 
next to naked. 

But I cannot exhaust the enumeration. With such a catalo,ii:ue of neglects, 
imprudences, etc., is there any wonder that people are sick ? Need 1 contrast tlie 
habits of Ncn-tiiern people with those I have enumerated? Their comfortable 
homes, warm "wraps," consideration of fare and b.ygiene, promptitude in admin- 
istering medicine, etc.V Yet, notwithstanding all this, we excel or equal so many 
States in respect to dnr most dreaded scourge — malarifU diMd.sefi! 

What a transformation will come when Northern i)eople try this climate! 
Indeed, the exj^erience of Northern people shows that, with respect to malarial 
diseases, they are incomparably more healthy than the natives, and the reason is 
plain — tliey tak j better care of their health. 

Now, if any one sliall inquire why we are so healthful here, the country need 
only to be seen for an explanation. We are in the great i)ine belt, in a high and 
rolling country, and one whose drainage is perfect, and there is nothing to pro- 
duce malarial sickness but the imprudence or neglect of hygiene of the residents. 

I wish I had time to say more. I could tell of hundreds of Swedes who have 
tried the climate, and how those who were prudent had the best of health, and 
how those who were imprudent died ;* how I have scores of letters from men of 
almost every nationality, who have tried field labor in the South, and had good 
health. 

I hope that I have let some light into sincere but benighted minds, who have 
thought this country a "vast Sarbonian bog," reeking with malarias and swarming 
with venomous reptiles. 

To this I add the forcible testimony of Dr. A. C. Stevenson, of Indiana, the 
former president of the American Association of Short Horn Breeders, in writing 
from Mississippi to the Prairie Farmer, of Chicago, Illinois. He says : 

"In conclusion, permit me to contradict the old notions that were promul- 
gated in the days of slavery, that Mhite men could not work in this climate. I 
have conversed with numbers of men from the West, from your State and city, 
who have lived here for years, who all bear witness to its falsity. But, more, here 
are foreigners from almost every part of Europe, who work at all seasons with as 
much impunity as the colored race.f And again, here are many neighborhoods and 
families in various places, that never owned a slave, who have done their own 
work, and are to-day the most prosperous and healthy people in the South. 
Another great error is that persons from the Slates, formerly not slaves, will not 
be kindly received. This may be contradicted by the very broad fact that they 
are more desired here than any others whatever, and will meet the most hearty 
welcome. Lands can be had for from three to twelve dollars per acre, and in the 
most healthful situations." 

As an illustration of how grossly misjudged Mississippi is, as to her health- 
fulness, we give the following most striking compilation from the United States 
census : 

Annual Death Rate for Each Thousand op Population. 

Massacliusetts 18.59 

New York 1730 

Virginia 16.32 

Indiana i5-77 

Texas 15.53 

Kansas 15.22 

Pennsyl /ania 14-92 

Illinois , 14.60 

Kentucky 14.39 

Alabama 14.20 

Georgia i3-97 

Colorado 13.10 

Mississippi 12.89 

*This came from their eating (the first year from Sweden) voraciously of salt pork. It was an 
instructive illustration. 

fHe was writing from a town where almost all the citizens were other than natives — most of them 
from New England and the North and West. 



MISSISSIPPI. 281 

In the year 187o I was appointed to a position on the southern branch of the 
Illinois Railroad, tlien under tlie control of Col. H. S. McConib, of Wilmington, 
Delaware, who was its president, to develop the material interest of the road. I 
immediately addressed myself to the work of developing the fruit and vegetable 
interests and encouraging tock raising and grass growimr. Among" other 
interests, I induced S. II. Edgar, Esq., the tlien vice-president of the said road, to 
bestow a liberal sum of money to further my work in exciting attention to the 
adaptation of the soil and climate along part of the road to fruits. Through this 
liberality and enterprise, a number of gentlemen were enabled to attend the 
Quarter Centennial Association of the American Pomological Society, held in 
Boston, in September, 1873, to which meeting they had been appointed dele, 
gates of the Louisiana Fruit Growers' Association. The following report, in 
part, is taken from the rei)ort of the proceedings of the American Pomological 
Society for that year. In tbe report by the committee, the area to which this list 
is limited is to "the southwest and that portion of the Gulf coast between Mobile 
and Eastern Texas;" but I am now satisfied, for my part, that the district to 
which this list is adapted is very much larger than the limits therein given ; for, 
since then, fruit growing iu many parts of the South (then never conceived of) 
has become a very important industry. 

LIST OF SELECT FRUITS. 

A^)les.—-EiirW Harvest, Red Astrachan, Carolina Red June, Primate, Garret- 
son s Eary, lellow June, Early Stravvbei'ry, Bevan, Golden Sweet. American 
Sunmic-r I carman^ Rhode's Orange, Bruce's Summer, Yellow Horse, Cane Creek 
bweet, Batchelor, Taunton, Hoover, Carter. 

p^,</-.v.— Doyenne d'Ete, Julienne, Osband's Summer, Beurre Goubault Dov- 
enne Loussock, Bartlett, Beurre Superfin, Howell, Sickel, St. Michael Archan-el 
Duchesse d Angouleme, Gray Doyenne, Beurre d'Anjou, Lawrence, Winter Nelis' 
^ leaches.— Eiu']y Tillotson, Yellow St. John, Tuskena, Amelia, Yellow Rare- 
ripe, Maintain Rose, Chinese Cling, Early Crawford, Stump the World, Susque- 
hanna Oklmixon Free, Oldmixon Cling, Columbia, Raymond Cling, Picquet's 
Late, Lady Parham. o' ^ 

Plu7ns.—TemY)\L\ Lombard, German Prune, Wild Goose, Indian Chief, Brill 

(grapes.— Hanfoix] Prolitic, Ives, Concord, Clinton, Maxatawnev, Scuppernonff 

ligs^-Lemon or '' Angelique," Celeste, Green Ischia, Brown* Turkev. White 
Genoa, Black Genoa, Brunswick, White Smyrna. 

Oranges.— Louisi'dnn "Creole," Mandarin, Brazilian 

Strawberries.— Long^vorth's Prolific, Wilson's Albany, Mary Stuart, Presi- 
dent Wilder, Charles Downing, Kentucky. . j 

Pa^pberries.-D'dYison's Thornless, Mammoth Cluster, Golden Thornless 
•Clark, Herstine. ' 

Blackberries.— Enr]y Wilson, Lawton. 

This list can be very much enlarged, and I attempt it in a measure with refer 
ence to Southern Mississippi ; and some of the varieties may suit many other 
localities. 

To apples may be added: Summer— Striped June, Sweet Bough, Early 
Red Margaret. Ilames, Carolina Watson, Early Golden Sweet, Family, Julian, 
Aromatic Cheese, Stanley's Seedling. Autiunn— Bonum, Yopp's Favorite, Penn- 
sylvania Cider, Tuscaloosa Seedling, Mamma, Phillippi, Lawren's Greening, 
Carter's Blue, Buncombe, Junaluskee, Maverick Sweet, Yates. Ben Davis, Disha- 
roon, Carolina Greening. Winter— Ferdinand, Cannon Pearmain, Oconee Green- 
ing, Moultries, Neckajack, Ilockett Sweet, Stevenson's Winter, Holly, Pryor's 
Red, Stansil, Shockley, Romanite, Santa, Limbertwig. Cider apples— Dean Crab, 
Hewes' Virginia Crab, Yates. 

To pears we will add— Madelaine, Ott's Seedling, Doyenne Boussock, Clapp's 
J'avorite, Edmonds, Andrews, Butfum, Belle Lucrative, Urbaniste, Louise Bonne 
-De Jersey, (stiff sods in north part of State), Niles, Kieffer, Garber's, Hybrid, 



382 MISSLS.SIPPI. 

China Sand, Le Conte. The last is planted in prodigious numbers South, of late. 

To the list of grapes I add, without any hesitation, Delaware, growing as I 
have never seen it elsewhere and yielding crops in the gravelly liills of Mississippi. 

In the same country the Tokay is considered very fine by an expert who was 
reared in Hungary. 

I am very glad to be able to add such distinguished testimony as the follow- 
ing from Parker Earle, Esq., who wrote it to the New York Tribune over ten 
years ago : 

"I have often seen very beautiful and perfect pears from that country. I 
think the fruit averages as well as in Northern orchards. All kinds of berries 
grow well, and vegetables are in season winter and summer. Going from 
Southern Illinois, where our grapes universally rot, I was much delighted Avith 
their perfection in Southern Mississippi, where I found no rot whatever, but 
great luxuriance of vine and fruit." 

THE GRASSES IN MISSISSIPPI. 

I shall say for grasses in this State what is applicable to most of the Southern 
States. I liave spent years in the study of them; not from the scientific stand- 
point of botany, or in the books, but from the practical point, "to know what 
would succeed and where." I have even sown the seeds for hundreds of miles 
out of tlie car windows along the Mobile and Ohio Railroad, in East Mississippio 
I did this not as a mere vagary. I had a double motive. I thought it would be a 
monument of my own, and keep me green in tlie memory of time as long as grass 
grew, and I knew it would impress the stranger. In my work to develop the 
State, I was constantly impeded, thwarted and harrassed by numbers of pessimists, 
who would declare to people who w^ere looking through the country to buy 
homes "that grass, clover, blue grass, etc., would not succeed; that the climate 
was too hot; tiiat the sun and dry weather, long heat., etc., etc., would kill it 
out." I determined to have a living refutation — nature's own assertion of the 
pernicious heresy; so I sowed Kentucky blue grass, white clover, red top, 
orchard grass and may be one or two others, from Verona to Shugulak, on the 
main line of the Mobile and Ohio Railroad, on the branch from Artesia to Stark- 
ville, on the branch from Artesia to Columbus, on the branch from Muldon to 
Aberdeen. All told, I did not sow over four or five bushels; yet, if the traveler 
will look sharp, he will find some beautiful catches any time between mid- 
December and July first — the proper season for these grasses South, so far as 
Mississippi. It has had a poor chance. The road bed is of sand. The hogs root 
it, the half-starved cattle and mules brow^se it. The spades of the track-repairers 
destroy it more or less, but it is to be found, and will stay. So much for the 
benefit of the casual traveler, and that he may note this living epistle, and, as he 
" runs, may read." 

But I have not only sown these seeds in the rich lime belt of East IMississippi, 
but in the poor pine woods in various places, and always with success. I com- 
menced in 1873. In that year I sent out hundreds of circular letters and collected 
testimony, without measure, as to the success of various grasses South. Not only 
so, but I had as assistants, to inform the country at large, the aid of eminent 
journalists. These I invited South to my Mississippi home, and showed them 
ample demonstrations. Their pens attest their conclusions. Dr. M. L. Dunlap, 
deceased, was a visitor. He thus writes to the Chicago Weekly Tribune, of 
which he was the agricultural editor, with the nom de ^ilume of " Rural," from 
McComb City, Miss., under date of December 21, 1874 : " The mayor of this city, 
Col. Hilh'^ard, has shown me a large collection of letters from planters in regard 
to the products of the country. These were in reply to tabulated questions sent- 



MISSISSIPPI. 288 

out for the purpose of drawing out the true state of facts. Clover, sown at the 
close of summer* and having the advantage of the wet season, does remarkably 
well, * * * in some cases cutting three or four tons to the acre during the 
season. [I have known over 9,000 pounds of extra cured hay made during 
the summer season from one acre— 3/". B. II.] On the lawn of tlie De Soto 
House is a patch of red clover, sown last May, that is doing finely." (As the last 
statement may mislead, I will state that the clover was sown late in May by me, 
because I could not get the seed earlier. I advise no one to sow later than March; 
always in the autumn, in mid-October, if possible, for the latitude in question.) 

After his visit to the writer, I accompanied him over the State. Visiting 
Jackson, Mississippi, on his tour of observation. Dr. Duulap writes soon after to 
the Tribune says : " Mr. Musgro ve showed me on his grounds red clover, Bermuda 
grass, white clover, timothy and orchard grass, all looking well. * * The barn 
of Mr. Musgrove was filled with clover, hay and oats of his own growing, and the 
hay was selling at |45 per ton to those who knew that clover would not grow in 
the State of Mississippi. And yet, here is the evidence that red and white clover 
will grow as freely as in Illinois." 

A little after he visited John Handy, Esq., at Canton, Miss., and wrote : " He 
has been very successful in growing clover for hay and pasturage ; also white and 
Alsike clover. Strange as it may appear, this latter clover is of thrifty growth. 
* * * He hasaherdof Jerstys as fine as I have seen in the Xorth. The secret 
of this is his pasturage, which is abundant the entire year." 

Thomas Meehan, Esq., Editor Gardeners' Monthly, and then editing the 
Weekly Press, Philadelphia, paid me a visit. He writes thus in the latter paper: 
" Old William Cobbett once said that a grain of good practice was worth a whole 
ton of theory ; but here tons of practice, in the shape of grass, may satisfy those 
whose theories lead them to think that grass will not grow South. Mr. Herwig 
is very fond of fine cattle and dairying. * * * His stock is of the Jersey 
breed, which does all that any one can expect." 

Mr. Herwig then lived on the southern branch of the lUinios Central Rail- 
road, at Areola, Louisiana, iu the Pine Woods Region, and had even then a 
considerable herd of Jerseys. 

Mr. Meehan visited me again. He wrote to the Philadelphia Press: "I 
noticed many little patches of blue grass, clover and similar plants used in 
Northern agriculture, which seemed to feel themselves perfectly at home, though 
it is the general impression they are unsuited to the climate." 

After his return, he thus writes: " Tne easy, good-natured people of the 
South made up their minds that clover and grass would not grcAv down there, but 
made no attempt of their own to test it. With grass and clover. Southern agri- 
culture would have a glorious future. The writer of this, having traveled much 
in the South lately, has seen, "with his own eyes," grr.sses and clover as good 
there as anywhere, and wonders why the idea ever prevailed that grass or clover 
will not grow." 

The late Rev. Alexander Clark, D. D., then editor of the Methodist Recorder,, 
of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, writes to the. Evening Chronicle: "It has been 
thought that the grasses are not adapted to the Southern soil. This is a popular 
delusion. While cotton was king, corn was a conscript, and clover and timothy 
spies from an enemy's camp. Tlie penalty was beheading and annihilation ! The 
negro has been trained from time innnemorial to destroy grass as an interloper. 
He intuitively takes to cotton. But our friend, Col. M. B. Hillyard, lately from 
Delaware, has made it a special business to study tiie grasses, and has wrought 

♦Middle October is the best time to sow grass seeds in Mississippi. 



384 MISSISSIPPL 

some significant results. Witliin n year or two tlic planters have seen the neces- 
sity of cultivating hay. By more tlian one hundred letters Ironi various portions 
of Mississippi, the testimony is that meadows are soon to hecome a jn'ominent 
feature of the Southern lanilseai)e. We have seen clover ii foot high in Pike 
County, Mississippi, the last week in jNEareh. We have walked over as splendid 
a sward in the same vicinity as ever greened the Miami valley. And these things 
were the result of the simple sowing of the seed on the natural soil, that of the 
pine ridges. On the bottoms the chances are still better. The statistics show 
that blue i^rass, Herd's grass, Hungarian, clover, timothy, Guinea, tall meadow oats, 
orchard grass, Bermuda, ]\Iescpiite and Rescue grass, will grow anywhere in the 
State. While the sun is hot for some of these species, the rains and dews are so 
copious that they never bui'n out, except in droughts, such as are more common 
in Illinois than here. We look forward to the day when dairies will be conducted 
on a larger scale in Mississippi than New York or Northern Ohio. The winters 
here will be so much lighter, and the yield of grass so much more abundant, that 
this branch of business must necessarily have large room." 

This prediction of dairies South don't look so "wild" now as it did then, 
especially in view of the fact that the Agricultural and Mechanical College of 
Mississippi has the only professorship of dairying in the United. States. 

Mr. J. G. Kingsbury, one of the editors of the Indiana Farmer, visited me 
and inspected the country. He writes to his paper: "As to the adaptation cf 
this region to the growth of our cultivated grasses. Col. Hillyard has already 
given sufficient testimony in his letters on the subject in our columns. We saw 
blue grass, timothy and clover all growing thriftil}'." 

In another part of the letter he refers to a New Yorker Miio had move:! to 
Mississippi, and says: "He was exceedingly well informed regarding the 
capabilities of this country, and assured us that he had never seen ranker and 
better blue grass than some he was growing on a farm he owned in another part 
of the State. With this fact established, it is easy to imagine what a chance there 
is for making easy fortunes in the cattle l)usiness, in a country where the climate 
does not require the animals to be sheltered for a single monlh in the entire j'ear, 
and where vegetation scarcely ceases its growth the year round." 

Further on he says: "No doubt but cloveriug will be found as successful 
here as at the North, as a cheap and beneficial renovator." 

Dr. A. C, Stevenson, of Greencastle, Indiana, then the president of the 
American Association of Short Horn Breeders, visited the South three times, 
investigating the capabilities for and inducements of the country to stock raising 
and grass growing. On two of these occasions he was my guest, and I accom- 
panied him on extensive tours on both sides of the State of Mississippi and 
extending into Louisisna, showing him the facts I wished to impress upon him, 
and, through him, the country at large. While on these visits South, his pen 
was pretty busy inditing letters to various Northern journals about what he saw 
and thought. The following part of a letter, though somewhat off the topic, is so 
weighty in its facts and its way of putting them, that I make a long extract from 
it. It is from the Indiana Farmer of February 2, 1876 : 

* * * " Tlie inducements to emigrants to come South, instead of North 
and West, are many. The winters are so mild as not to stop the production of 
many of the necessaries of life du;-ing the whole season. Cattle may be kept 
through the winter with little or no food, as many are kept; the comforts to 
man and beast during the winter season are most striking. All and more that 
can be raised North or AVest can be raised here. Here corn can be raised 
with the most slovenly cultivation ; ground ploughed three inches deep with one 
small mule, when it should be ploughed eight. Oats do well, and may be sowed 



MISSLSSIPPL 285 

in the fall and pastured all winter. In the northern part of this State wheat 
products are entirely satisfactory. Barley grows and produces finely. But there 
are crops here of very great value, in addition to anything that can be grown in 
the West. Rice is alone a Southern product, and one of great value as an article 
of food, and in demand everywhere. Sugar is also a Southern product, and one of 
universal consumption. Cotton is also a Southern product of world-wide demand. 
These are in addition to the field and garden crops of the North and West, and 
are no iusignilicant product, but of the greatest value, and in which the South can 
have no competition. So that the market in these articles is always sure. This 
brings us to the realization of another fact: The better markets that must 
be realized by those producing breadstuffs here (grain and meat) over those 
who go West. Corn here averages about $1.50 per bushel; West, about $0.30 
per bushel; other grains in the same proportion. Hay here will average 
$35.00 per ton; *West, about $10.00. These differences depend upon the 
"middle-men," and transportation. This being one of the great markets for 
all such products, and the South must continue to be a market for such 
products as the AVest grows, so long as cotton and sugar are produced. These 
products may as well be grown here as West, and the question is, and the only 
true one, had he who desires to emigrate, as a farmer, better go West and produce 
corn and hay, the former at thirty cents a bushel and the latter at ten dollars per 
ton, or go South and produce corn at one dollar and fifty cents per bushel and 
hay at thirty-five dollars per ton? Now, if the Western farmer produces fifty 
bushels of corn per acre at thirty cents per bushel, it is fifteen dollars per acre. 
Twenty bushels, at one dollar and fifty cents, is thirty dollars, just double, and if 
the Western farmer makes one ton and a-half per acre, at ten dollars per ton, an 
acre will amount to just fifteen dollars; whilst a Southern acre, at one ton per 
acre, would yield thirtj'-five dollars. But this is not a fair representation. I can 
select lands here, with fine dwellings wiiich w ill cost half the value of the land, at 
twelve dollars per acre, which will yield, with Western culture, forty bushels of 
corn per acre, and wdiicli will yield at tw^o mowings during the season, two tons 
of hay. The winters are satisfactor3\ But you ask me what of the summers? 
Personally, I cannot answer. But here are a number of men from Indiana, who 
testify most positively that the summers are not perceptibly warmer than they are 
in Indiana, and the nights are even pleasanter. The summer, or warm season, is 
longer, that is the only perceptible difference. One thing more, health. How is 
it? I have no doubt that Mississippi, wdiich I have now visited twice, is as 
healthy as any of the Western States or Territories— the bottoms of the iMissis- 
sippi and other large streams excepted. The countr}^ is undulating, generally, 
and a more lobust people are not to be found in the United States." 

In a full survey of stock raising in the South, in a letter to the National 
Live Stock Journal, Chicago, for March, 1876, after commenting upon domestic 
animals South ; after stating that a very erroneous opinion has too generally pre- 
vailed that this is a grassless country; after some cordial tributes to various native 
grasses South, he thus writes: "The Mesquite and Guinea grass are much 
esteemed here. Besides these, some of our common grasses do w^ell. The orchard 
grass does w^ell, and will make here the best of pasture. I have seen a few fields 
of red clover, and I have just cut branches nine inches long. Herd's grass, also, 
is a sure crop. Timothy I have seen looking well in special localities. Blue grass 
is growing in the yard fi-om whence I write, but I see it seeks shady spots. It 
might do on north hill sides. AVhite clover seems to grow spontaneously ; it may 
be seen on every cleared spot not in cultivation." 



*The Southern farmers now raise so much of their own com and hay that the figures must be 
reduced at least one- third. 



286 MISSISSIPPI. 

At this day, few well-informed persons can doubt that the South has some of 
the best grass regions on tlie continent ; but I thought it well to give the testi- 
mony of these eminent authorities, who, nearly ten years ago, were satisfied as to 
Mississippi and other parts of the South, If such men had no doubts then, who 
can doubt now? I ought to try to impress the reader with another most impor- 
tant consideration. The testimony I elicited at that day bore reference, la the 
main, to one of the most infertile divisions of the South ; the country visited and 
seen by these gentlemen is one of the least adapted to grass raising — the Pine 
Woods Region of Mississippi. The land is thin, and will not bring over twelve 
bushels of corn to the acre, when fresh — much of it. Worse than all, so far as 
grass is concerned, there is little or no lime in the soil. The deduction is obvious 
then. If this country will bring such grasses and in such quantity, what will 
these soils do when enriched and limed, or marled ? For marls are very common 
and abundant in much of the South. Better still, what w ill the good lands and 
the rich bottoms do ? And greater yet, w^hat will those rich cretaceous soils do 
that are so abundant in parts of the South ? 

I hope that this effort to impress the inhabitants of the pine woods of the 
South will not be in vain ; for from Virginia to Florida, in the pine woods, 
clovers and other grasses can be grown ; having satisfied myself as to Florida, with 
reference to red clover some years ago while visiting that State. And I desire 
that much and most of what I have said and shall say of grasses (the native 
varieties excepted) in the article on Mississippi, shall apply to the South gen- 
erally. In this connection I will give a list of grasses adapted to most of the 
South, known to me by having tested them or seen them, or avouched by most 
satisfactory testimony: Clovers — red, white, Alsike, Alfalfa, Lucerne, spotted, 
Medick (commonly known as California clover, burr, or yellow clover), Japan 
clover, Mexican or Florida clover (last two of which have only made 
their appearance within a few years, are spontaneous, and exceedingly 
rich in nutriment and valuable in other respects). Kentucky blue grass 
(superb in the cretaceous soils of the South, and good even in rich pino 
lands, if limed), red top, the Bent grass of England, or Herd's grass of Penn- 
sylvania (almost inextirpable in some soils and growing on very poor soils and 
even uplands), Timothy, the Herd's grass of New York and New England (a 
native of South Carolina, I believe), orchard grass, velvet grass, tall meadow, 
oat grass, Italian rj^e grass (which last two cannot be too highly extolled), John- 
son grass, Guinea grass (wonderful for hay, but should never be put in land 
not destined for its perpetual use, as it is ineradicable, or nearly so), Texas blue 
grass (new, very promising and highly commended). I might swell the list by 
giving many native Southern grasses, but this is needless. There are two other 
grasses I cannot pass. One is carpet grass. This I have never seen out- 
side of Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi and Florida, although it is likely it is 
found in most Southern States. Cattle prefer it to Bermuda. It is one of the 
earliest and latest grasses, and green all the year as far south as New Orleans. 
The other is Bermuda grass, the sacred grass of India. This grass will afford 
perpetual pasture in the extreme South, It is a grass so valuable as to beggar 
praise. I have lately discovered that it will grow well as high as French- 
town, Maryland. On the banks of the James River, in Virginia it is known as 
wire grass, and regarded as a great pest. No grass known will stand as much 
pasturing and drouth, and none will support as many head of stock per acre.* 
It will grow on rich or poor land. The ideal pasture is this grass, Kentucky blue 
grass and white clover on the same ground. In much of the South this combina- 



*Dr. Raveiiel, of Charleston, S. C, by certain treatment of soil, obtained near there ten tons of 
hay per acre. 



MISSISSIPPI. 287 

tion will afford pasture every day in the year, while, if the land be drained well, 
it will hold lip the " foot" of stock and keep them out of mud in the most rainy 
seasons. 

I have been so elaborate on grasses because I would have no reader left in 
uncertainty as to whether the South is naturally a great grass country. If any 
one doubts now, I commend that one to a personal inspection. After this long 
digression, I return to tlie Pine Woods Region of Mississippi. But before I com- 
ment more particularly on the Pine Woods District of Mississippi, I wish to say a 
few words about the Pine Woods District of the South as a sheep raising country. 
I believe that, in a few years, this area, which stretches from the James River in 
Virginia to Cedar Keys in Florida, and from the Atlantic coast far back into the 
interior, west, is destined to be one of the greatest sheep walks in the world. 
Whoever has read the work of John L. Hays, Esq., Secretary of the Wool 
Growers' Association of the United States, on sheep raising in the South, must 
have been struck with the capabilities he concedes to the country in question in 
the behalf stated. 

Some years ago, in a very minute and tedious examination as to the health of 
sheep and cattle, and the feasibility of making these industries great and profit- 
able in the country I was writing of, I became satisfied that daiiying, sheep 
raising and stock raising would become great industries South. For very much 
of this Pine Woods Region of the South there is a great future. Sheep are 
almost exempt from disease, are almost incredibly fecund, cost almost next to 
nothing to raise, produce, for obvious reasons, wool of the finest character. The 
country is so well watered, is so exempt from the depredation of beasts of prey 
(except the negro's inevitable cur), the climate so mild, the variety of food so 
great, that it is almost an ideal sheep country. 

In much of the area Japan clover is making its appearance. Some States are 
becoming well "set" in Bermuda. These grasses will do well in the pine woods. 
If one will scatter the seeds of white clover, orchard grass, red top and blue grass, 
these grasses will furnish winter pasture, and sheep, for much of the area, will 
need no attention in winter. Every railroad running through a pine woods 
country South ought to sow these grass seeds, so that a traveler can see what the 
lands will produce. 

And this Pine Woods Region, some day, will become the great factor in 
establishing in the United States, and most likely in the South, one of the future 
great industries of the country — the manufacture of the finest woolen fabrics, of 
which France and England are now the great producers. As is well known, what 
are, in the United States, the great wool producing States, cannot raise the 
Saxony sheep. The climate is too severe for this delicate breed. The tariff on 
wool prohibits its importation in the measure needed for a great industry in fabrics 
founded upon such a quality of wool. So, from these two causes, our finest 
wear — French and English cassimeres — must be supplied from abroad. But the 
day will come ere long when millions of these sheep will be raised South, and 
then the opportunity for an industry new to the country, and most beautiful and 
lucrative, will enure to the South. Wool from this breed has been raised South 
that surpassed the best of the imported article. 

The raising lambs for early markets North and West will some day become 
a great industry generally, as it now is in a part of the South.* The cheapness of 
these pine woods lands, their healthfulness, their climate, their adaptation to such 
a vast range of products, mark them as the future seat of a great population and 



*In Tennessee, for instance, it is becoming quite a business. 1'he ewes are fed wheat, mixed with 
a little cayenne pepper in May, and become " in heat." Their lambs are born in fall and ready for 
market early in the next year, at high prices. 



288 MISSISSIPPI. 

of great and varied industries. At present, the buzz of the saw cutting the pines 
into lumber, and turpentine distilleries, are mainly the signs of life in much of the 
area; for I have ridden on some Southern railroads (and sometimes off) for miles, 
and have seen hardly a sign of life. Along many railroads the timber has been 
cut off for several miles on either side, until it has become unprofitable to haul 
logs. The mills have been moved, and stumps and heaps of sawdust are all that is 
left to show that there has ever been any business transacted there. Tlie land is 
considered worthless, but it is better naturally than many parts of the United 
States 1 have seen, where a wise husbandry produces bountiful and remunerative 
harvests, and where taste and wealth make life a charm. Thus much for the pine 
woods of the South, in general terms. A country too much disregarded. 

The pine woods of Mississippi stretches to the Gulf of Mexico on the South; 
on the west it extends to the Bluff Formation on the Mississippi River; east, the 
pine woods rim to the Atlantic coast, and the Alabama Pine Belt abuts on Mis- 
sissippi, indistinguishable, except by the arbitrary line of the State; north, it is 
a curving, sinuous line, running through Lauderdale, Newton, Scott, Madison 
and Yazoo Counties. On the northern and southern borders the geologists have 
made divisions into which I cannot particularly follow. But the Pine Woods 
Belt has been chiefiy notable for its immense wealth of timber, its production of 
turpentine and rosin, and for its capabilities for the production of fruits and vege- 
tables — only utilized of late in the last two respects. Of late years, the value of 
these pine forests has been appreciated somewhat, more especially by Western 
lumbermen, who, seeing the rapid disappearance of the Western pine, and the 
enormous appreciation in the prices of lands containing it, have bought millions 
of acres in Mississippi. Probably six millions of acres have passed into the 
hands of speculators at prices of from one to two or three dollars per acre. 
Fortunately, there are millions of acres left, at a dollar an acre and higher, 
according to quality. In a few years, however, these lands, for timber alone, must 
be very much higher in price, and, unliiie much timber land West, the land can 
be turned into valuable agricultural and horticultural uses; although my sugges- 
tion for all rolling pine lands in the South, of the usual sandy formation, would 
be to get them "set" in Bermuda grass, white clover, Kentucky blue grass, etc., 
and keep them thus perpetually. The country would thus be kept from " wash- 
ing;" its beauty and symmetiy would be preserved; fine pastures for cattle and 
sheep in a superbly watered land could be found. The upland flats for fruits ; the 
bottoms for cotton and the cereals. By the above management, the Pine Woods 
Country could easily be made the " thing of beauty " it ought to be. 

This Pine Woods Country in Mississippi is one of the best furnished areas in 
the country with railroad facilities. On the east, the Mobile and Ohio Railroad 
traverses its eastern i)oider ; on the west, the Jackson Railroad (southern branch 
of the Illinois Central Railroad) penetrates the centre of the western area; along 
the north line, the Yicksburg and Meridian Railroad runs; from Meridian to New 
Orleans, runs the New Orleans and Northeastern Railroad, whose names desig- 
nate its direction. This is a new railroad, and opens up not only the vast pine 
forests, but a beautiful sheep country and fruit and vegetable area. Another rail- 
road is projected (it is said now that it will be built) from Jackson, Mississippi, to 
Ship Island, on the Gulf coast. This will open new pine lands and give another 
north and south railroad. Still another railroad runs through the southern border 
of this Mississippi Pine Belt— a division of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad. 
In the article on the Alabama Pine Belt, I said I would defer further notice to 
remarks on the coast country. This country will soon be attracting great atten- 
tion from the country at large for its charms as a place of residence. From thirty 
or forty miles east of New Orleans until as many from Mobile west (say for from. 



MISSISSIPPI. 289 

fifty to sixty miles), there is an area, for rnucli of the way, in which the Orange 
will succeed. The advantages of this area are many. It is accessible to the 
gayety and shopping attractions of New Orleans. In two or three hours, one can 
leave one's town on the coast and arrive in New Orleans. On the coast one can 
get iish, oysters, crab, shrimp, in the greatest abundance and cheaply. There are 
chances for sailing in many large shallow bays, where there is little or no danger; 
or one can sail in the sound or the gulf, or run up the many beautiful rivers and 
creeks that " make into " the gulf The huntsman can find plenty of shooting, in 
wild duck, geese, snipe, woodcock, quails. If he goes back a little, he finds plenty 
of wild turkey and deer. The salt water for bathing in summer is another great 
attraction, and this is the only feature of its many charms that has brought any 
consideration to this strangely overlooked area. Hundreds of beautiful cottages, 
with orange groves, are owned by residents of New Orleans, who resort there in 
summer for bathing and for the cool and healthful sea breezes. 

It is somewhere on this coast that I have seen, in fimcy, the future 
ideal city, with some poetic name, arise; where wealth and taste shall vie with 
nature in lavish embellishment; where architecture shall achieve her choicest 
triumphs; where time shall recall the glories of other climes and seas, and 
where famous cities, now (as to their brightest aspects) only memories, shall 
have glorious similitudes. At thoughts of the future of this gulf coast, the old 
time splendors of the Mediterranean and Adriatic revive in recollection, and cities 
forever embalmed in history and song— Naples and Nice and Venice. This city 
may have, in its environs, its vineyards, from whose grapes the choicest wines will 
be made;* groves of orange and olive, orchards of peach and pear. Silk fiictories 
may spring up, and the fabrics there made may vie with Lyons, in France, or Pat- 
terson, in New Jersey. 

And how varied are the delights of the sea ! At eventide the pale purple of 
the sky, glassed in the "ocean mirror rounded large," over which a vast calm is 
brooding, where the sweet contagion of the tranquihty is irresisti bly caught, the 
hush is undisturbed, save by the gentle wave as it tenderly lips the shore— kissing 
it, as if stealthily, like a lover his sweetheart, lest a kiss sound may betray his 
dalliance. Other times the colors— here, opaline breadths; there, spaces of dark 
blue ; nearer, the deep green ; cloud shadows dusking and dappling here and there ; 
pearly flashes from the breaking billows, leaping and frisking. There are the 
bounding ships and the screaming, darting sea birds. Along the shore the— 

"Flying foam scuds." 

The islands lying — 

" In dark purple spheres of sea." 

And then the morning ! Gray's fine line rushes to memory :— 

"The breezy call of incense breathing morn." 

This joj-ous air puts the most inspiriting influences in nature in sympathy 
with it. Hear the applauding rustle and the dancing responsiveness of nodding 
and curtsying trees, the laughing, leaping plaudits of the crisp and sparkling 
Svaves, the largeness of movement, the grand swiftness of the wind-driven, wide- 
spreading clouds, as they fleet so joyously down the sky. Everything on this sea- 
ward, wide-view scene speaks of freedom, spaciousness, exaltation. The air 
exhilarates like laughing gas, and the breast seems too small for the glad throbs 
of the dilated heart. Landward, the narrow horizon is fringed with varied shades 
of green from magnolia, live oak, pine and other trees. And, while the mocking 
bird has, for song, "all seasons for its own," yet, in the morning, he seems most 
jubilant. This time of the day he embellishes and ornaments in glorious aban- 

Uriutfed't'i^tte o'f cplLre!"''' '""^ scuppernong destined to make the choicest champagne that ever 



290 MISSISSIPPI. 

3on, and ^vitll " bright, keen joyancc." From his exliaustless repertoire, he 
pours — 

"From the sleek passage of his open throat, a clear, iiinvrinkled song." 

Never a mortal api)roachecl him. Pretty and rapid earthcpiakes of ecstasy shake 
his breast ; little storms of quavers escape his throat ; roulades, cadenzas, fioritures, 
all ornamentations of music, fly from "the sugared nest of his delicious soul." 
Diapasons and gamuts are gamboled through in the melodious mazes of his spark- 
ling song, and he revels and riots — seeming to create a being of nmsic, the vibra- 
tions of whose verj'" wings are tuneful. 

And then the other beauties of the gulf coast, in the flowers, the flowers! 

Why a city, such as I have faintly foreshadowed, should not be, one cannot tell. 
And in its villas our Southern marbles — marbles whose variety and beauty defy 
description — will play a conspicuous part. These beautiful stones are at the very 
doors of the gulf, in Louisiana and Alabama especially, and in exhaustless quantity 
and of superb quality. I am not sure but one can have "marble halls" upon the 
gulf almost as cheaply as buildings of brick. Hundreds of millions of dollars are 
invested in villas North, on the Hudson, at Long Branch, Newport. Why not some 
South ? Let one point be deeply engraven on the mind of the invalid. Take the 
map and see how far from the raw "north-easters" one is who lives on this gulf 
coast, between New Orleans and Mobile. And this air, when incurred, has come 
hundreds of miles through forests of pine, whose influence has taken out its fangs 
and softened its rude blasts with the "balmy sigh" of its medicinal breath. All 
sea winds on the coast are bland. 

It is useless to elaborate these attractions. They will soon receive atten- 
tion from Europeans and Western and Northern people; and the coast will 
become a Southern Newport or Linig Branch in winter. It will become, in nanu' 
aiul fact, the sanitarium of the Southwest. (What I shall sav of Florida hereafter 
Avill appl}^, in great part, to tlie gulf coast). I should have a profound satisfaction 
in commanding considerati(m for and helping to build up a country which has no 
superior in the manj' regards in which taste, wealth and culture seek their most 
elegant and charming diversions and pursuits. But I nmst forbear. The country 
needs no eulogist. Nature sings an unceasing paean in the cadences of sea beats, 
the pathetic pine songs, the melodies of her feathered songsters, and her balm 
dropping blooms forever murmurous with busy bees. I may, however, extract 
from some words of the late Hon. J. F. II. Claiborne, the historian, some remarks. 
In a letter to Gen. A. M. West, published with the Centennial Address of the latter 
gentleman by the Mississippi State Board of Centennial Managers, he says, on 
page 30 : " Southeastern Mississii)})i produces a great variety of fruit. The peach, 
apple, plum, pomegranate, i)ear and flg; pecan, grapes of many varieties, straw- 
ben-ies, dewberries, blackberries, the persimmon, mull)erry and pawpaw, or cus- 
tard fruit, and mc'lons of various kinds, grow in great perfection and yield 
abundant returns. Nearer the seashore we find, in addition, the orange, lemon, 
citron, shaddock, jujube, almond, banana, olive, and occaslcmally the pine api>l('" 
Of '* staple crops," he says: " Sea Island, or long staple cotton, is a safe crop on 
this coast, anywhere within the influence of the salt air from the sea. It rates in 
the market quite as well as that grown in South Carolina. Yield, about 800 lbs. 
of seed cotton to the acre, more or less, according to land, culture and season. 
Tobacco, from Florida or Cuba seed, has been tested, and, in careful hands, would 
be a paying crop. A large area of land here is specially favorable to its culture. 
Sugar cane succeeds admirably, and is a reliable and renmnerative industry. Rice, 
so far, has grown exclusively on uplands, and only for domestic use. Its culture 
might be profitably extended. Sweet potatoes have been made to yield 500 
bushels to the acre. Two crops of Irisli potatoes are grown on the same land, the 



MISSISSIPPI. 291 

lirst planting in January, the second in August. Indigo, broom-corn, the sor- 
ghums, and the castor oil bean, have all been successfully planted." 

I have seen fine oats, corn and buckwheat. It is quite certain, too, that along 
this coast will, some day, spring up an immense trucking business. Already has 
a start been made. Its climate is a little earlier than Mobile, with about the same 
soil, and, as is well known. Mobile is one of the most considerable vegetable pro- 
ducing areas in the country now. It ought to be a great point, too, for canning 
figs, oranges and other fruits, shrimp, fish, oysters and vegetables. Here and there 
a cannery is started. Others will follow. Dairying ought to be a considerable 
business there. I know that fine Jerseys can be raised there. I know that 
Bermuda grass and Japan clover can be combined with Kentucky blue grass, red 
top, orchard and white clover, and perpetual pastures are to be had of the choicest 
grasses. All it needs is skill and rich land. There ought to be many woolen and 
cotton factories along the coast. The cheapness of living f(U' the operatives, with 
the sea to feed them from; the healthfulness and the delights of the sea shore; the 
fact that Saxony sheep can be raised so well and cheaph'^ and their wool had ; tlie 
further fact that the wool already raised there has a distinct name — "lake wool," 
is of very superior character, and brings a higher price ; the fact that New Orleans 
is so near, where cotton can be bought every day ; the fact that Sea Island cottcm 
can be raised there — all these point strongly to the sea coast as a great manufac- 
turing area. All these operatives of factories, canning factories, these wealtliy 
cottagers, these throngs in winter from the North in the future palatial hotels, will 
furnish to many dairymen and poultry-raisers lucrative vocations. It is useless 
to put an}' more colors into the picture. The sea shore furnishes the canvas. 
Art and enterprise, wealth and culture some day will draw such a "living land- 
scape " upon it as will make any forecast I could draw the veriest daub. I have 
said so much to point the way to wealth and taste and enterprise, hoping they 
will follow it and construct and beautify as they go. 

As to the health of tlie country, it ought to be superfluous to speak. Let me 
"close the chapter" by quoting a passage descriptive of a resort I am familiar 
with, from the pen of Col. Claiborne, in the book I have been last quoting from: 
"But the position is at once beautiful and commanding. A rippling bay, dotted 
with verdant islets, and looming out into the " deep, blue sea," " for as the breeeze 
can bear tlie billows' foam." In tlie back ground stands the great pine forest of 
Mississippi — those evergreen Titans that have "braved the battle and the storm" 
for ages, and now fling their hoary shadows and distil their balsamic dews over 
this charming shore. A ci-ystal river, fringed with verdure, winds, like a thread of 
silver, around the village ; and gigantic live oaks, that no elemental strife can shake, 
gracefully stoop to kiss the sparkling waters. The jn'ospect and the air are exhil- 
arating, and tlie invalid finds these powerful adjuvants to the elixir of the springs." 

I am sorry that the Forest Bulletin of the United States Census does not give 
the (piantity of pine by counties as it does in some States. It was issued Decem- 
ber 1, 1881. It gives the long-leafed pine {pinus austmlLs), number of feet, board 
measure, total 17,20(1,000,000. Of this, 6,800,000,000 is west of Piarl River. East 
of Pearl River, 7,000,000,000. There are, in the "region of mixed growth, exclu- 
sive of 200,000 acres injured by the manufacture of turpentine," 0,800,000,000 feet. 
The region of mixed growth is in the northeast corner of the Pine Belt. It is like 
a right-angled triangle. It starts in the southeast corner of Wayne County and 
runs northwest diagonally, the base of the triangle resting on Wayne, Jasper and 
Smith Counties, the apex in southeast Kemper. This variation is explained m 
the fact that what is called the Central Prairie Region brings its rocks to the sur- 
face, making a very fertile, in part, but very variable soil, and making a very 
mixed forest eirowth. There was cut, for the census year 1880, 108,000,000 feet 



292 MISSISSIPPI 

of yellow pine. The quantity cut per annum has doubtless greatly increased. 
Of short-leaved pine {pinus mitis), there were standing on December 1, 1881, 
6,775,000,000 feet, l)oard measure. It grows mainly in a country closely related 
to the position of the Pontotoc Ridge. I shall say something now as to the 
natural products of Mississippi, not noted before or only glanced at. 

Lignite, — Tliis material underlies the whole area, and even more territory of 
the Y(!llow Loam Region. 

Hydraulic Limestone. — Prof Ililgard speaks of an "excellent hydraulic lime- 
stone" in the northeastern portion of tlie Stale. In anotlier place of a certain 
locality, he says : " The rock which forms the bald hilltops on the right bank of 
Yellow Creek (and which may probably be found in many similar positions in the 
hilly country lying between the Red Sulphur Springs and Eastport road, and the 
Tennessee River), I have found to be of very superior quality. The cement made 
from it sets almost as rapidly as plaster of Paris, and becomes very hard." 

Subsequently, Prof W. D. Moore, of the University of Mississippi, visited the 
locality " between Eastport and the Tennessee line," to make a report. He closes 
liis report thus : " I need not enlarge upon the importance to the immediate dis- 
trict, and to the whole State, of such an immense deposit of hydraulic limestone, 
sufficient to suppl}" the whole valley of the Mississippi with cement for generations 
to come, which can be easily worked, and from its vicinity to the Tennessee 
River, easily transported to every part of the South and Southwest." 

Limestones for quicklime, building stones, grindstones and flagstones are 
found in various places in Mississippi, but would take too much space to particu- 
larize. The limestone, in places, can be safely commended as yielding a lime, in 
some instances, " as good as the majority of the imported article." 

Gyjjsum. — Considerable is said about gypsum in Prof Hilgard's work. Future 
explorations will doubtless disclose it in places in considerable quantity. " Pure 
gypsum has been found in wells near Cato, in Rankin County, twelve inches 
thick. It has been found near Kosciusko, Clinton, West Hinds and other places." 

Kaolin. — Professor Harper says: "The kaolin deposit in Tishomingo County 
is, I believe, the largest deposit in the world. * * * The most remarkable 
phenomenon offered by this immense and really invaluable kaolin deposit, is its 
appearance on the place where it is found." 

Sand. — White sand, fit for glass making, I understand is to be found along 
the coast. I am credibly informed that a very superior article in vast quantity 
has lately been discovered on the new branch of the Illinois Central Railroad, 
from Kosciusko to Aberdeen. Prof Hilgard says that the Pearl River and its 
tributaries furnish "drifts of white sand that often vie in purity with those of St. 
Genevieve, in Missouri, whence the Pittsburgh glass works receive a large part 
of their supply." 

Marls. — To much of the area of the State, marls of various character are 
accessible. Along tne eastern portion of the State they are underlying much of 
the whole area from north to South. Across almost the whole lower half of the 
State, from east to west, they subsist, (Of course, I do not mean they are every- 
where accessible). These marls differ much in texture and quality, but they are 
all well W'Orth utilization. I again quote from Prof Hilgard, with some analyses: 
"My deduction, from all the examinations I have given these marls, is that they 
are far superior to the green sand marls of New Jersey in potash, for which the 
latter are chiefly distinguished, and also contain many other and valuable elements 
of plant food that the New Jersey marls totally lack." An analysis of marl 
near Byram, on Pearl River, where it is probable that there are millions of tons, 
gives: 



MISSISSIPPI. 293 

Insoluble Matter (chiefly sand) 12.308 

Potash 0.611 

Soda o- 1 79 

Lime 43.932 

Magnesia 1.658 

Peroxide of Iron and Ahimina 2.696 

Iron Pyrites 1.266 

Phosphoric Acid 0.224 

Carbonic Acid and Loss 34.720 

Water and Organic Matter 2.396 

100,000 

Going across to another main line, on the eastern side of the State, I find 
Prof. Hilgard speaking thus of two counties along this railroad: "In Clarke and 
Wayne Counties we have a great variety of mineral fertilizers." Here is an 
analysis of green sand marl from Garland's Creek : 

Insohible Matter (silica and sand) 21.657 

Soluble (in NaO CO^) Silica 24 224 

Potash i-7'7 

Soda 0-465 

Lime 14 785 

Magnesia 2.476 

Brown Oxide of Magnesia 0.403 

Pero.xide of Iron 13.020 

Alumina 7 751 

Phosphoric Acid 0327 

Sulphuric Acid o 566 

Carbonic Acid 12. .-^92 

99-556 

This marl is quite remarkable for its completeness as a mineral manure in all 
respects, containing, as it does, large amounts of every essential ingredient (except- 
ing chlorine, which may, however, be present also) ; being so constituted as to be 
equally w^ell adapted to light and hea^y soils, and Avithout any danger of over- 
dressing. It is, thus far, the most complete mineral fertilizer I have found in the 
State. A better manure can hardly be found. It is far superior to all manure 
which the agriculturist himself can produce, and, icdeed, better than guano itself 
It is true guano has, the first year, a better effect upon the crops than the marl 
can produce, but its efact is confined to one year, while the effect of the marl lasts 
for ten years. In the first year, the effect of the marl is only slight ; it is much 
better the second, third and fourth years, and decreases then again. Whilst the 
guano supplies only the food for the vegetation for one year, and acts, as it were, 
only as a stimulant, the marl improves and enriches the soil. While, of course, 
these marls can not compare in commercial value nor in fertility with the cele- 
brated phosphate rocks that have now made South Carolina so f\imous — which 
contain from fifty to sixty per cent, of phosphate of lime, and which will doubt- 
less be yet laid bare both further north and south, as has been measurabl}^ done in 
North Carolina of late — yet their abundance, accessibility and diffusion make 
them a vast, inconiputible, untouched, inexhaustible source of wealth to the 
country where found; and were there no other factor to enrich that country, 
there would be the pledge of its future fertility, under the treatment to be 
accorded that area by its inliabitants within the next half centurj'. 

Had I space, T should like to give a list of the forest growth of Mississippi. 
Her flora, in this regard, is very rich. In 187G, I made a collection or list of names 
of trees for use at the Centennial Exposition, and I think I enumerated nearly 
one hundred species of trees. In the unique building contributed by Mississippi 
to the Centennial Exposition, and which illustrated, in part, her forest wealth, 
there were sixty-eight varieties of wood used, 

SOME LAWS OF MISSISSIPPI. 

There is exempt from seizure and sale, under execution or attachment, in 
favor of each head of a family or housekeeper in this State, the following prop- 



394 MISSISSIPPI. 

erty, to wit : Two work-Iiorses or mules or one yoke of oxen, tAvo cows and 
calves, five head of stock hogs and five sheep, one hundred and fifty bushels ot" 
corn, ten bushels of wheat or rice, two hundred pounds of pork or bacon or other 
meat, one cart or wagon not to ex'ceed one hundred dollars in value, household 
and kitchen furniture to be selected by the debtor not to exceed one hundred 
dollars in value, three hundred bundles of fodder, one sewing machine, and all 
colts under three years old raised in this State by the debtor, and the wages of 
every laborer or mechanic to the amount of one hundred dollars. The following 
property is likewise exempt in the hands of the persons named, viz: The tools 
of a mechanic necessary in carrying on his trade, the agricultural implements of 
a fiirmer necessary for two male laborers, the implements of a laborer necessary 
in his usual employment, the books of a student required for tlie completion of 
his education, the wearing apparel of every person, the libraries of licensed 
attonKT3-at-law, practicing physicians and ministers of the gospel not exceeding 
two hundred and fifty dollars in value; also the instruments of surgeons and 
dentists used in their profession not exceeding two hundred and fifty dollars in 
value, the arms and accoutrements of each person of the militia of the State, and 
all globes, books and maps used by teachers of schools, academies and colleges. 
That every citizen of this State, male or female, being a householder and having 
a family, shall be entitled to hold, exempt from seizure or sale under execution or 
attachment, the land and buildings owned and occupied as a residence by such 
debtor, provided the quantity of land shall not exceed one hundred and sixty 
acres, nor the value thereof, inclusive of improvements, the sum of two thousand 
dollars. The Legislature of the State has passed a law " exempting from taxation 
for ten ^''ears the machiner}^ used for the m:.nufacture of cotton and vroolen goods, 
yarns and fabrics composed of these or other materials, or for the manufacture of 
agricultural implements and machinery." The municipal corporations are moved 
generally by a similar si)irit, and almost in any town capital v/ould be met by the 
same exemption the State grants. 

The State expends nearly a million of dollars for education in her common 
schools. She has several institutions of high order supported by the State. She 
divided the agricultural land scrip dividend equally between the " Alcorn Univer- 
sity," for colored, and " The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Mississippi," 
for white youth. Tuition free in both instances. The fund was $'227,150, and 
liberal appropriations have been made to both since. Besides, there is the Touga- 
loo University, for colored students of both sexes, the State Normal School, for 
colored students, and the Shaw University, for colored students; besides, there 
are female seminaries, high schools, (to say nothing of the State University at 
Oxford, for white students of both sexes,) without number, scattered over the 
State. It would be a gross injustice to pass with bare mention the Agricultural 
and Mechanical College of Mississippi, because it is a revolutionary institution. 
It is presided over by Gen. S. D. Lee, and is patronized by the best people of the 
State. Its curriculum is emphatically agricultural. The labor pertinent to the 
field and farm is compulsory. It is winning a great reputation for its curriculum 
and the students it is turning out. It is the only agricultural college in the United 
States, I believe, that has a professorship of dairying. It thus bravely leads the 
\\i\y to the development of one of the most lucrative and beneficent industries of 
the world. 

This State, full of benevolent aspirations after progression, last winter, laid 
the basis for an industrial school for females, thus taking very advanced ground 
in behalf of the education of the sex. Its features are to be as follows : The bill 
creating the college provides that the object shall be to establish a school where 
girls may acquire a normal education, together with a knowledge of kindergarten 



MISSISSIPPI. 295 

instruction; also a knowledge of telegrapliy, stenography and photograph}^; also 
a knowledge of drawing, painting, designing and engraving in their industrial 
application ; also a knowledge of fancy, practical and general needle-work, and 
also a knowledge of book-keeping, with such other industries as may be, from 
time to time, suggested by experience, or to prcnnote the general object of said 
institution and college, to wit: Fitting and jireparing girls for the practical indus- 
tries of the age. 

I take the following extracts upon the climate of ^Mississippi from Volume V. 
Tenth Census United States : " The climate of Mississippi is a ' warm temperate' 
one, in the literal sense of the term, extremes of temperature prevailing fjirther 
north, being tempered materially by the influence of the winds blowing from the 
Gulf of Mexico. The extreme cold of winter sometimes occurring in the northern 
part of the Slate (at Oxford and Holly Springs, where, ordinarily, the winter mini- 
mum is from 15° to 20° Fah.), is 10" Fah., safflcient to kill fig trees six years old ; 
but at Grenada, on the Yalobusha River, the fig rarely suffers.* At Yicksburg 
and Natchez, the extreme cold thus far observed is 17° Fah.; inland, at Jackson, 
several degrees loAver. It is only near the sea coast that the orange and lemonf 
can ordinarily be grown without winter protection in the open air. A warm belt 
extends along the Mississippi River, but, unlike that of the coast, it is liable to 
'cold snaps' from the influence of northwest winds, which render the outdoor cul- 
ture of the sub-tropical fruits precarious, even as far south as Baton Rouge. Cool 
belts or regions are formed by the elevated ridge lands at the heads of the larger 
rivers of the State. The summers are long, practically including May and Septem- 
ber. During this time the weather is warm, the usual range of the thermometer 
being from 70° to 90° Fah., but excessive heat and sultriness, such as prevails so 
commonly during the shorter summers in the Middle and Northern States, is rare, 
and sunstroke is almost unknown." 

WINDS AND RAINFALL. 

During the summer the winds are altogether predominantly from the south, 
and blow quite steadily and gently, greatly relieving the sun's heat and allowing 
sultriness only for short periods. Between southeast and due south, tliese winds 
bring clear, warm weather ; but as they veer toward southwest the sky clouds 
over, and between southwest and due west lie the winds that bring warm, steady 
rains, usually without any severe electrical excitement. The winds between due 
west and northwest in summer bring the violent thunder storms, coming suddenly 
and sometimes rising to the violence and cyclonic character of tornadoes. In 
winter the northwest winds bring the severe cold snaps, usually of only a few 
days' duration, and accompanied by but a slight precipitation, so that snow rarely 
falls to the depth of more than a few inches even in the northern part of the 
State, and is quickly melted by the south and southwest winds with warm rains. 
As the wind rarely lies for any length of time between northwest, east and south- 
west, either in summer or winter, the change from a cold and dry northwest wind, 
with snow flurries, to warm south and southwest winds, laden with moisture, is 
frequent and rapid in winter, giving that season a character of rather uneujoyable 
dampness overhead and slushiness under foot, which are, however, offset by its 
brevity, for the temperate and beautiful autumn often extends into the latter half 
of December, and the middle of February usually finds the early vegetables fairly 
up in the gardens, even in the northern part of the State. The minimum of rain- 
fall is in autumn, and October is almost uniformly a dry month. Winter and 
spring together sometimes include nearly two-thirds the rainfall for the entire 



*I have known the celeste fig killed by cold at Hazlehurst — considerably further South. 
fl hesitate to call the lemon a success on the sea coast in Mississippi. 



296 MISSISSIPPI. 

year Altbougli long dry spells arc liable to occur, the rainfall, on the whole, is 
well distributed througli the seasons. The rains are often torrential, and immense 
quantities of water fall in a given time. In spring, quite well into the season, 
nearly daily rains, coming on about or a little after noon, are a strongly marked 
feature of the climate for some distance from the coast up into the interior, for 
fifty miles or more. 

PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT. 

The following table will prove very instructive to show how Mississippi has 
progressed in some of her material aspects : 

Products. 1870. 1880. 1882. 

Indian corn, bushels 15,637,316 21,349,800 30,233,600 

Cotton, bales 564,938 963,111 1,064,000 

Oats, bushels 414,586 1,959,620 3,080,800 

Hay, tons 8,324 8,894 10,886 

Alolasses, gallons 219,674 53^^,625 

Rice, pounds... 374,627 1,718,951 

Sweet Potatoes, bushels 1,743,432 3,610,610 

Orchard Products, value $71,018 $378,145 

Live Stock, number 1,724,295 2,398,934 2,324,429 

Butter, pounds 2,6i3'52i 7.454,^43 

Wool, pounds 288,285 734,642 

No one will understand the great significance of these figures without some 
comment. I should have liked to show the increase in the produce of butter, as 
an indication of one of the prettiest aspects of the progress of the State. There 
are no statistics for the year; but there were nearly 10,030 more milch cattle for 
1883 than in tJie census return for 1880. Every intelligent man in the State 
knows what that means — a large increase in the product of butter and the value 
of the cows; for the reason that scores of thoroughbred bulls, mainly Jerseys, 
have been scattered through the country, and their "get" are better butter- 
producing sto(;k tlian " scrubs." Besides, there are many thoroughbreds. Again, 
although the number of live stock is something less than in the census return, yet 
there are two remarks relative to that: The swine are vastly improved in quality, 
and the very large proportions the shipping of cattle to New Orleans has assumed 
within a few years, explains the falling off in numbers. In the time of the census, 
the business was small ; it is now^ large. But, if one will reflect what it means to 
Mississippi to keep home the money on fifteen million bushels of corn — the differ- 
ence between 1870 and 1880 — he will be impressed with how the State is growing. 

Tlie difference to the AVest of, say, five States like Mississippi buying fifty to 
seventy-five millions of breadstuffs per annum from her will be severely felt in 
the end. The merchants in the large cities, too, will feel it; and between the loss 
to them by reason of compressed cotton sent North or through to Liverpoof on 
through bills of lading, and their loss of these sales of pork, hay and corn to the 
Southern planter, it looks like their capittd must seek new channels. I'he 
immense indebtedness of the cotton-planting interest will still enable them to 
control shipments for a time ; but it must be that European and Northern money- 
lenders will bring their capital South, and thus permit the planters to pay off 
their indebtedness to the merchants, upon which they are paying ten, twelve and 
higher per cent, interest. Long loans could easily be. made at six to eight per 
cent, per annum interest. There is room for millions. No investment could be 
safer. The productive power of the land is incredible; and no greater anomaly 
marks Southern affairs to-day than the prices at which lands rent and the value of 
their product, as compared with the prices for which they can be bought. Mr. A. 
B. Hurt, in his valuable little pamphlet, says : "The value of lands per acre in 
Mississipi)i, as compared with the value of i)roducts per acre, according to the 
returns of the census, afford an interesting study. It often happens that lands 
which rent for from $5 to $10 per acre, and yield products in value from $15 to 



MISSISSIPPI. 297 

per acre, are rated in market as low as $10 and $35 per acre." Much of what 
I have been saynig of the progress and development of Mississippi, and the 
chances for loans and investments, will apply as well to other Southern States. I 
do not mean to convey the idea that Mississippi alone offers fine opportunities in 
the latter regard, or is the only State that has made great development. On the 
contrary, some Soutiiern States have far outstrijiped her in the race of progress. 
But I have been diffuse, because betrayed, half unconsciously, into disquisition. 

But no aspect of development in Mississippi promises more for her lasting 
and alluring greatness than the raising of thoroughbred cattle. There are now 
in this State four distinct live stock organizations, every member of whicli must 
be the breeder of registered stock of the breed of which the association is the 
champion and exponent. And East Mississippi, with her rich limestone prairies 
and her large fields of clover and blue grass, has hardly a peer, saving East Ten- 
nessee, in the number of her distinguished breeders and their fine stock ; in raising 
thoroughbred, registered cattle, in proportion to her area and population. And 
I look upon her as to be one of the most renowned theatres for dairying and 
stock-breeding in the United States within the next quarter of a century; for be 
it understood, that those who shall there start the manufacturing of cream cheeses 
of the fine Jersey cream, have a life of opulence awaiting them. 

Another phase of progress in w^hich Mississippi is distinguishing herself is 
jute culture, and I trust I am doing no one a w^rong wiien I say that my friend, 
Mr. C. Menelas, who is such a zealous and munificent experimentalist, is the lead- 
ing culturist in the South, and the originator of it South. An organization was 
formed a year or two ago, and great progress has been made in fashioning a 
machine to decorticate the fibre. Mr. Menelas lived ten years in India, at Cal- 
cutta, and understands jute culture well. The followmg is part of his testimony 
before the Tariff Commission of the United States: "In 1878 I bought a planta- 
tion in Mississippi, and concluded to make an experiment in jute culture. I wrote 
to the Agricultural Department at Washington about it, and planted one-eighth 
of an acre. The land upon which I planted was alluvial, such as is used for corn 
and cotton. To my surprise, I saw that crop grow magnificently to perfection. 
I took some stalks to the Cotton Exchange in New Orleans which measured 
fifteen feet high. I induced the Commissioner of Agriculture of Louisiana and 
other friends of mine to plant several acres, and I have been through their planta- 
tions, and it seems to grow admirably ; so there is not the slightest doubt that 
jute will grow splendidly." Jute is mixed with cotton, linen and silk, and enters 
into many fabrics. In Dundee, Scotland, there were, in 1872, one hundred jute 
mills and twenty thousand workmen. It is a large and growing industry, and 
promises much for the South. 



LOUISIANA. 



Louisiana is the least iinderstoocl, and, until very lately, has been the most 
disregarded, of all the Southern States. Before the late civil war her position was 
one of great eminence in wealth and value of productions, but since then she has 
sunk very low in the rank of States in these regards. However, those things 
remain to her that no wars nor misgovernment can take away — climate, soil, 
great rivers, and a geographical position second to no State in the Union. 

Louisiana adjoins Arkansas on the north, Mississippi on the east and Texas 
on the west. Its southern boundary is the Gulf of Mexico. It is separated from 
Mississippi by the Mississippi and Pearl Rivers, except along the northern line of 
a strip that juts out to the east, and along the greater part of its western limit 
the Sabine River separates it from Texas. The Mississippi winds through the 
southern part of the State and empties into the Gulf of Mexico 105 miles below 
New Orleans. The State lies between the meridians of 89° and 94° west longi- 
tude, and between the parallels of 28° 56' and 3:J° north latitude. Its area, 
according to the latest measurements, is " about 45,420 square miles, exclusive of 
fresh-water lakes, land-locked bays and of Lake Pontchartrain. Of this area 
about 20,100 square miles is lowland, belonging to the alluvium of the Mississippi 
and Red Rivers, and to the marsh region of the coast; the rest, or over one-half 
of tlie State, being uplands of varying character." The State is divided into 58 
districts called '* parishes," equivalent to the " counties " of other States. 

The population of the State in 1880 was 939,946, of which 454,954 were white 
and 48:],655 colored; 885,800 native and 54.146 foreign. 

The following on the surface of the State is from '' Climate and Health of 
Louisiana," by Joseph Jones, M. D., one of the most satisfiictory works ever 
written about any countiy: 

"There is not, perhaps, on earth a continuous tract of equal extent presenting 
a greater diversity than Louisiana. Within its limits are included all the varieties, 
from the most recent and still periodically inundated alluvium, to hills approach- 
ing the magnitude of mountains; every quality of soil, from the most productive 
to the most sterile, and from unwooded plains to dense forests. 

"All the soulliern j^art of this State is an alhivial tract of low champlain 
country, extending from Lake Borgne to Sabine River, and from the Gulf of 
Mexico to Baton Rouge and Red River— about 250 miles long, and from 70 to 140 
wide. This extensive tract is intersected by numerous rivers, bays, creeks and 
lakes, dividing the country into a great number of islands. A large extent of 
country in Louisiana is liable to be overflowed by the Mississippi. According to 
Mr. Darby, the accurate and learned and accomplished su^weyor, the average 
width of overflown lands above Red River, from latitude 31° to 33° north, may be 
assumed at 20 miles, equal to 2,770 square miles. Below latitude 31° to the efliux 
of the Lafourche, about 80 miles in extent, the inundation is about 40 miles iiL 
width, equal to 3,200 square miles. 



LOUISIANA. 299 

" All the country below the efflux of the Lafourche is liable to be inundated, 
equal to 2,370 square miles. From this calculation it appears that 8,340 square 
miles are liable to be inundated by the overflowing of the Mississippi; and if to 
this be added 3.550 square miles for the inundated lands on Red River, the whole 
surface of the State liable to inundation will amount to 10,890 square miles. Of 
this extent, however, not one-half is actually covered annually with water; and 
every year, by the extension of levees and by the deepening of the mouths of the 
river, the area of cultivated land is becoming greater, and that subject to over- 
flow less. 

"The water of the lakes, as well as that of the Mississippi River, moderate 
the intense heat of summer and the severe cold of winter ; and the residences of 
the planters on the banks of the streams are noted for their elegance, comfort, 
thorough ventilation and healthful climate." 

The alluvial bottoms of the rivers and bayous afford strips of land of unsur- 
passed fertility. The usual width of the alluvial plain of the Mississippi bottom 
between Vicksburg and the mouth of the Red River is from 30 to 35 miles; that 
of the Red River from 8 to 10 miles; below the junction of the two valleys, the 
aggregate width is about the sum of the above figures. The ''uplands" of the 
State also furnish, soils of astonishing productiveness; scarcely inferior in some 
instances to those of the alluvial regions. 

CLIMATE. 

As to the climate and topography of Louisiana, the grossest misconceptions 
prevail. Col. S. H. Lockett, Professor of Engineering in the Louisiana State 
University, who traveled over all the parishes of this State in search of data for 
his topographical map of Louisiana, says of it : 

"As it is situated at the mouth of the greatest river on the continent, and 
contains within its limits the delta of this river, intersected by numberless lesser 
rivers and bayous, and filled with lakes, most people conclude that Louisiana is, 
throughout its entire extent, a low, wet, swampy region. They imagine its surface 
to be a great plain of wonderful fertility, when at all arable, with an indefinalUe 
succession of deep jungles, tangled swamps, marshes, lakes, sloughs, cane and 
cypress brakes. But these misconceptions will be speedily dissipated by a journey 
into the interior, and it will be discovered that few States of the Union possess a 
greater diversity of surface, soil, climate, scenery and products than Louisiana, 
and no State has a more varied and interesting population, or a more eventful 
history." 

Professor Hilgard, in his article on Louisiana, in Vol. 5, Tenth Census, speaks 
thus of the climate of this State : 

"Owing to its nearness to the Gulf of Mexico, and the prevalence of winds 
from tiiat direction, the climate of Louisiana is much less ext.reme than tliat of the 
States lying furtlier north — the summer heat being less oppressive, though more 
prolonged, and the winter's average temperature (52.8° at ]S^c'^v Orleans, 45 4° at 
Shreveport) ver}? mild, though liable at times to sudden and severe 'cold snaps,' 
brought on by northwesterly storms, which restrict the culture of tropical fruits 
on a large scale to the immediate neighborhood of the gulf coast. On such 
occasions the temperature may fall to 17° even at New Orleans, and to 15° in 
nortl.ern Louisiana. November, December and January are the coldest Uionths,. 
June, July and August the hottest; the temperature ranging from 74° to 98°, 
with a mean of 81.6° at New Orleans, while at Shreveport the range of tempera- 
ture within the same months is from 64° to 95°, with a mean of about 81°. 

"The rainfall at New Orleans amounts to nearly 73 inches annually, at 
Shreveport about 47 only, but increases slightly toward the Mississippi Valley^ 



:300 L()i'lSlA.\A. 

At New Orleans the rainfall is most copious durini,^ the three hottest months, and 
somewhat less during the three coldest; during both, al)out 40 inches of rainfall 
is received, the rest of the annual precipitation being more or less evenlj^ distribu- 
ted over the spring and autumn. The summer rains frequently come accompanied 
bv violent thunder storms from the northwest, but the soutliwest is the regular 
rain wind. The same holds true, more or less, all over the Str.te. the regular sum- 
mer showers being considered highly conducive to the welfare of the cotton crop, 
providing they are not too much prolonged at any time." 

The following extracts are from the book above quoted, "Health and Climate 
of Louisiana:" 

"The atmosphere of Louisiana is loaded with moisture, and upon this condi- 
tion, as well as its warm temperature and the abundant uniform distribution of 
rains in spring and summer, mainly depend its luxuriant forests and splendid 
-crops of sugar-cane and cotton. 

" AVhilst the rains which water the Atlantic slope are equally distributed, and 
those of the California coast are periodic, making a well-defined w^et and dry 
season, those which water the Mississippi Valley are unequally distributed— those 
of spring and summer being greatly in excess. In winter, the mouths of the 
Mississippi and the region of Pensacola are in the area of greatest precipitation, 
(18 inches.) From this center the lines of equal precipitation on the west main- 
tain a considerable parallelism— first, near northwest, along the Texas coast; then 
rapidly curving near northeast, then east, and, as they leave the continent, north- 
east. In autumn the mouths of the Mississippi and the region of Pensacola are 
still within the area of greater precipitation. The lines of equal precipitation 
pursue a north-northeast direction. * * * 

"The climate of Louisiaiui is rendered moist and suited to the culture of the 
sugar-cane by the winds from the Gulf of Mexico. 

"Owing to several causes — the absence of protracted drouths, the abundant 
rainfall, and the presence of large bodies of water in the city and lakes surround- 
ing New Orleans— the climate, as well as that of the gulf coast, comprising a large 
area in the Southern States, is very humid, containing a large quantity of vapor, 
though not in the sensible form of clouds or fogs. This condition of the atmos- 
phere, combined with the tropical heat of summer, fiivors the rapid development 
of animal and vegetable organisms. * * * 

" The presence of large masses of water within and around Louisiana, as well 
as the mass of cold water introduced from the northern regions or from the Rocky 
Mountains into the heart of the continent by the Mississippi River, render the 
climate of this State less liable to extremes of heat than positions far north and 
in the interior portion of the Mississippi Valley." 

SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. 

There is probably no other State in the Union possessing so much land of 
such marvelous fertility, capable of ' such continuous cultivation without 
exhaustion, and adapted to such a wide range of products. On this point Dr. 
Jones' book, above quoted, says: 

"The soil of this State, in virtue of its variations in comjiosition and eleva- 
tion, is adapted to the successful cultivation of sugar-cane, rice, cotton, corn, 
wheat, rye, barley, oats, and all the fruits common to the temperate and sub- 
tropical zones. Louisiana possesses, i)erhaps, the most fertile soil of any of the 
States of this Union, in virtue of the large proportions of the alluvium of the 
Mississippi Valley enclosed within her borders. 

"As is well known, a wide belt of recent alluvium borders the Mississippi 
River from the mouth of the Ohio to the gulf, 75 miles wide in the greatest 



LOUISIANA. 301 

expansion at Napoleon, and 25 miles in its greatest contraction at Natchez and 
Helena. The area of the alluvial tract above the delta is 19,450 square miles. 
The depth of the alluvial deposits from Cairo to New Orleans ranges between 25 
and 40 feet. 

"The area of the delta of the MissiBsip|)i River, which lies almost wholly 
within the borders of Louisiana, assuming that it begins where the river sends otf 
its first branch to the sea, namely, at the mouth of Bayou Atchafalaya, is esti- 
mated at 12,300 square miles. This would be at tlie mouth of Red River, in 
latitude 31°, whilst the mouths of the Mississippi are in latitude 29°; so that the 
delta extends through two degrees of space. The entire delta is elevated but a 
few feet above the level of the Gulf of Mexico, and, from its fertile soil and 
proximity to the Mississippi River and bayous, is perhaps as fertile as any body 
of land in this or any other continent, and is admirably adapted to the cultivation 
of rice and the sugar-cane." 

The southwestern portion of the State deserves especial mention in this 
connection. Col. Daniel Dennett, in his able and valuable work on " Louisiana 
As It Is," refers to it as "that magnificent portion of Louisiana west of the 
Mississippi, the Teche and Opelousas Region, usually called 'Attakapas and St. 
Landry' — the land of enchanting scenery, of beautiful bayous and glassy lakes 
and bays, of splendid prairies and noble forests, of pleasant skies and gentle 
breezes ; the land of flowers, of beauty and of health." 

Professor Eugene W. Hilgard, in his " Preliminary Report of a Geological 
Survey of Western Louisiana, remarks : 

"Few sections of the United States, indeed, can offer such inducements to 
settlers as the prairie region between the Mississippi bottoms, the Nez Pique and 
Mermentau. Healthier by far than the prairies of the Northwest ; fanned by the 
sea breeze ; w' ell watered ; the scarcity of w^ood rendered of less moment by the 
blandness of the climate, and the extraordinary rapidity with which natural 
hedges can be grown for fences ; while the exuberantly fertile soil produces both 
sugar-cane and cotton in profusion, continuing to do so in many cases after 70 
years' exhaustive culture — well may the Teche Country be styled by its enthu- 
siastic inhabitants the 'Garden of Louisiana.'" 

I quote from the book above referred to, " Louisiana As It Is." The country 
denominated Southwestern Louisiana embraces, according to the treatment of 
Col. Dennett, the parishes of St. Landry, Lafayette, St. Martin, Iberia, Vermillion 
and St. Mary. Of this area he says: 

"These six parishes contain more than 3,000,000 acres of tillable land, most 
of it of inexhaustible fertility. Even most of the sea-marsh and all of the swamp 
lands may be reclaimed by local levees and draining machines, and may become 
the most productive rice and sugar lands in the State.f * * * On thousands 
of acres the grass grows on a smooth surface under the waving branches of noble 
trees. These lands are far more beautiful than the famous woodland pastures of 
Kentucky. The trees have a more luxuriant growth ; the foliage is richer and 
hangs out on the broad branches in a more generous abundance, and the soil is 
rich beyond anything we ever saw in the great West. And it is the cleanest 
looking country we have ever traveled over. The beautiful smooth prairies look 
as though they had just been washed ; the grass looks like a lawn neatly shaved 
by some " Fine Old English Gentleman," who prides himself on his aristociatic 
estate. The fat herds grazing upon these green prairies help in giving the finish- 
ing touch to this magnificent landscape scenery. 



1 1,250,000 acres of these marsh lands have been purchased, and a wealthy English company is 
rapidly reclaiming them. 



303 LOUISTANA. 

"On the border of the sea marsh of St. Mary and Iberia, extending from a 
point below Berwick's Bay to and into the parish of Vermillion, a line of forest 
trees, mostly heavy cypress, stands as the dividing line and wall between the marsh 
and the tillable lands of the Atchafalaj^a and the Teche. In places this line of 
timber is from one to two miles wide, and even wider. This line of forest extends 
down to the mouth of Bayou Sale on both sides, and down both sides of Bayou 
Cypremont. At Petit Anse Island the sea marsh and prairie meet, and the chain 
of timber is broken for a few miles. On the side of this crooked chain of timber 
next to the plantations, in places, there is a heavy growth of gum, oak, ash, hack- 
berr}^, and an undergrowth of dogwood, vines, palmetto, haws, etc., etc. These 
lines of timber, reckoning that on both sides of Bayou Sale and Bayou Cypre- 
mont, are over 12.") miles in extent. 

"In the lower or eastern part of the parish of St. Mary, around Berwick's 
Bay and the lower Teche, the highest land is about 10 feet above the level of the 
Gulf of Mexico. Near Franklin, the highest bank is from 12 to 13 feet. Near 
Breaux Bridge, the first bank is 22 feet high ; the second bank 27 feet. 

"In the parish of LafJivette, the Cote Gelee Hills, Beau Basin and the banks 
of the Vermillion are 40 feet above the level of the gulf The general average of 
St. Landry is about GO feet above the same level. The parish of Vermillion is 
about on a level with St. Mar}^ 

"Plums, figs, quinces, pears, cherries, grapes, papaws, persinmions, pecans, 
hickory nuts, "walnuts, blackberries, dewberries, May apples, mulberries, crab 
apples, black and red haws, chinquapins, strawberries, and some other fruits, nuts 
and other fruits of little importance, thrive and mature well in these parishes. 

" In St. Mary and along the coast to the Mermeutau, oranges are raised yearly 
in great abundance ; and the mespilus or Japan plum, lemons, limes, bananas and 
pineapples may be produced in the open air as high up as Franklin, by giving 
them a little extra protection in the winter. 

" Turnips, cabbages, beets, and all the other garden vegetables and melons, 
grow as well in these parishes as they do north of the Ohio River. The best 
winter gardens contain large white-head cabbages, rutabaga and flat turnips, 
onions, eschallots, garlic, mustard, roquette, radishes, cauliflower, beets, cress, 
lettuce, parsley, leeks, English pease, celery, endive, etc., etc. These thrive well 
in the gardens all winter, except in very cold winters, back from the coast, when 
a part of the list give way before the frosts. 

" The yield of oranges per acre is enormous. It is impossible to make any 
estimate that is reliable, as we have not the acres or yield of any one orchard. 
The largest orchards produce over 3,000,000 of oranges yearl}'. Some trees com- 
mence bearing when they are five or six years old, and earlier bearing can be 
produced by grafting and budding. 

" A full-grown, healthy orange tree 15 or 20 years old, in a good season, will 
produce 5.000 oranges It takes from 300 to 4r,0 oranges to fill a flour barrel ; so 
the lai'gest orange trees produce from 40 to 50 bushels of fruit in a favorable 
season.'' 

From a report on Southwestern Louisiana, issued by the United States 
Department of Agriculture, the following extracts are taken : 

"The trees are all drai)ed with moss, which grows in great abundance, and 
forms one of the industries of this countiy, and really makes the laboring man 
independent; for a man with ordinary industry can easily earn from $1.50 to 
$2.50 per day gathering and preparing it for sale. The market appears to be as 
certain as our wheat market. There are dealers along the railroad always ready 
to take it at quotation price, and ship it to the manufacturers. It is principally 
used in making mattresses, which are sometimes sold, or, at least, bought, for hair 



LOUISIANA. 303 

Tiialtresses. I was very forcibly struck with the idea that this moss business could 
be worked on a much larger scale. The quantity is almost inexhaustible. The 
cypress swamps are so heavily covered with it that in many cases the heavy limbs 
of the trees are broken off by its immense weight, and there it lies in absolute 
waste. Tliere is a constant demand at a remunerative price, and the material is 
free to any one who wishes to gather it. You can reach by boat all those cypress 
sw^amps, gather and take off the material with much less expense and trouble 
than you could cart it over dry land. 

"The prairie and all the level lauds I visited .in this locality are of alluvial 
origin, with a surface soil of from three to four feet of almost inexhaustible 
fertility, formed and kept up by the annual decay of vegetable matter and over- 
flows from higher altitudes. Some of this land will produce four crops of hay a 
year. I allude to Bermuda grass, which makes the best hay that is made in this 
section. A slight variation is found in the subsoil. In this vast prairie, containing 
three or four millions acres, there is a series of islands that are not surrounded by 
large and distinct rivers, but by bayous, which are simply little streams that drain 
them and part of the adjacent prairie. On these islands the soil is good and easy 
to cultivate, but of course not so rich or so deep as that of the prairies. As a 
general rule the soil runs as follows: first, rich vegetable mold from four to six 
inches deep, next loam, then sand, and lastly clay. So far as the soil is concerned, 
I know of nothing that could not be raised here, except timothy and some small 
fruits that fail in midsummer if the season be dry. 

"Although the prairies are wet during the winter and si)ring months, you 
never find them sour or boggy, and the sweet, nutritious grass never ceases to 
grow ; and I have noticed the cattle foraging when the surface was covered with 
water. In going from place to pluce the residents drive right through the ponds 
and lakes after heavy rains in March in preference to going around them. No 
matter how deep they look to be, there is but little deviation from the level. The 
wheels hardly ever sink beyond the depth of two or three inches, even when 
wagons are loaded. The manner in which these prairie lands are drained is by 
open ditches cut to natural ponds, as they are termed by the natives, or to the 
bayous. It would be impossible to drain these soils by blind ditches. There is 
almost an endless variety of vegetables grown here, and the house gardens can be 
so planted to yield fresh vegetables of some kind the year round. They all seem 
to grow to perfection, and yield abundantly. The people live largely upon sweet 
potatoes and yams, together with fish and game. It seemed to l)e tlie market 
gardens only that were stocked with any great variety of vegetables. It was a 
very agreeable sight to see how thoroughly these gardeners attended to their 
crops, after noticing with what carelessness the farmers attended to their kitchen 
gardens. Not much wheat is grown. The yield of straw is very heavy; the 
yield of grain generally light. They sow nothing but spring wheat. 

" Farmers turn their cattle on the grain fields, chiefly oats, about the middle 
of February, and let them graze two or three weeks. This furnishes good pasture 
and does not seem to interfere with the yield. I failed to obtain the average yield, 
but in reply to my questions a farmer told me he expected to make at least 40 
bushels to the acre. The Texas or other rust-proof varieties are generally sown, 
because they are best adapted to the climate and less susceptible to rust and 
insects. Rye is seldom grown for the grain, but is sometimes sown in the fall for 
winter and spring pasturage. When grain is sown in tlie fall the land is thrown 
up in dead furrows — that is, throwing it up in beds about IS or 20 feet wide, with 
an open or dead furrow between, which holds the water during a wet season. 

" One of the principal industries of this locality is raising cattle for the 
butcher, and very little attention is j^aid to growing fine stock for dairy purposes. 



304 LOUISIANA. 

I stopi)ed for some time at the house of a gentleman who owns about 3,000 cows,, 
and the butter for his table came weekly by express from Philadelphia. Cattle 
graziiiiC yields an enormous profit. Cows can be bought very cheap, from the foct 
that there is so little demand for their meat ; even the poorest class do not cure to 
eat it. They can be bought from $12 to $18 per head, and calves will command 
from $7.50 to $9 in the pasture fields. The only way to account for this high 
price for calves is that veal s<^ems to be the favorite meat. Fresh pork is seldom 
cooketi ; in fact, I never saw any during my stay in that locality. 

"Cattle raising could be^ made more profitable than it is by dividing the 
prairies into smaller pasture fields, and by cutting and curing thousands of tons 
of hay that go to waste, to be fed from the rack when the pasturage grows short. 
During at least nine months in the year the grass is so strong and luxuriant that 
the cattle tramp doAvn and destroy more than they consume. It has only recently 
been discovered that the sea marsh in this part of Louisiana affords as good 
pasturage as there is in the world. Strong, nutritious grass grows in great abun- 
dance, resembling very much in taste and appearance -what is known in the Middle 
States as red top, only a little taller and as thick as it can stand. From as near an 
estimate as I could make, if cut and cured, which could be easily done in the 
proper season, it would yield five tons of good hay per acre. There are thousands 
of acres of the sea marsh that could be most profitably used by those owning the 
prairie or higher land adjoining it. I am writing from personal observation, 
having ridden over it on horseback in perfect safety. The only obstructions to 
guard against are muskrat holes; but for a pasture for at least six months in the 
year, without expenditure, it cannot be excelled. I see no rer - Ji to prevent them 
from using it longer, if they will build sheds to protect their cattle in midsummer. 
Some of the natives say that tlie mosquitoes would kill them in the spring season, 
but this I doubt, for there is always a strong gulf breeze. 

" Deer are to be found here in great numbers ; also wild cattle and hogs. 
" There is no danger from floods from the higher countries, for by inquiry 
from the oldest inhabitants, and these I could rely on for the most accurate 
information, there has been no overflow for 23 years, and then the water reached 
the depth of about 10 inches by backing up from the Gulf of Mexico and meeting 
the floods from the higher lands, remaining but a short time and then flowing ofl" 
rapidly. Even in cases of an overflow, there are spots elevated above the common 
level on which they can go lor safety. During the winter season the marsh is 
covered with a heavy growth of the season previous, which makes very good hay, 
beiug perfectly clean, free from rust or mold, and we noticed our horses ate it 
whenever we gave them the opportunity. But the cattle seem to prefer the green 
spring growth which is just making its way through the root. It has a sweet 
with a very slight salty taste. I saw a lot of cattle that were turned on the marsh 
in December when they were there and in bad condition. They are now looking 
fine and healthy, and nine-tenths of them seal ftxt. 

"This sea-marsh land is very cheap, and yet it is better pasture, in winter 
especially, than the prairie lands that command ten times the price. The cattle 
dealers who own sea marsh and the adjoining highlands and i)rairie have a great 
advantage over those in the Middle and Western States, for there is no need of 
fertilizer of any kind, no outlay for shelter, and very little need of fencing. If 
they fence at all, it is by sticking green willow poles. It seems to make little 
diff'erence whether they be the main stock or branches; they immediately take 
root. On these they stretch the wire, with stakes driven down along the line to 
strengthen it. As the fencing is cheaply done, the older it gets the stronger it is. 
Those who use the sea marsh as a cattle range drive them off in the latter part of 
August. At this season the heavy spring and summer growth has fully matured 



LOUISIANA. 



the effect of „ i^ I',::' ™ "f^lT?" """f "^'^ *™^ "'<' P™-- Bhows 
«' T,. f 1 .• ' especiaJly il the hot season be lonff and drv 

wiU. „or:;7or™c,*wMe7 "'," "r^ — ^ti^-. S^pan.,. breed, 
<ieep,y.su„ke„ b"^. *"»" A Mr:;'"*-' ^"".' -"■<'-<=•'-»«. high flanks and 
animals are absent Tlw ' „nil characteristics requisite for good breeding 

acclimated tliTt is . re In n"?'"'' 'T """ ''''"' "''''' ^^« ^ "-rouging 
.hem,and requiring so, Me tentionT TT "' "*"^" of any kind nm'ong 
Past experience t^icl^e them ' t r.,' ^VT """^ "'"" ^' ""^ ">°^' P™«''""e° 

improve the breed. ;« they nvari^btdi': off' T,"T"\r" ^'^ '" ""'^^ *" 
year have made these effort, tnlZ f , '^''' "'"' ''^'^ ""«• 'he first 

are no«- adoptingTnew met io7a™rr .r ."r "-'^ "'" -"™«'^hle. Some 
It is imponii'ig c-alves J To" h y are "M'eno'u^f toT'' 'T "'^' ' ^''"• 

attention must be paid to them for t.ieis'seln | erjrthenth "" '^T 
as well as the native cattle ^ ^^ *^"^'® ^°^ do 

I hai-e evlr s^if T^lr ^^^^^^^^^^^^ '^ "^ --'*-, Ho.stein caives that 

the herd from which he ;™g,i , em in New^Si^^Vr"' """'i"^ ""'^^ "^ 
old, and are as large as anv of h,p 4m ^'"^^ "" about 10 montlis 

is on Mr. J. Jefferson's pTanta.iol hT7 T' °? "^ P'""'"*'""' ^^'^ '"C''' 
Bhort-horns and soine fine spectoens of t .^ f '"^''.'^ "' '"^'"« ^0 registered 

favorably impressed with the S in and t^llrt, "°" "r"' "<^ '^ ""^ 
countrv." ' ""' -noistuns and thinks they are ffu) cattle for the 

and vermin and less ifab, to' iTeie C thevt:'"", "'f 'T"*'" "" '"^"^'^ 
. parts of the United States TlTXV V^ ° '"°'''''' '""'"<'«« '" ""'cr 

to about 100,000 acres Abo„T^iM„T'™' " "l "^"""'-^ ^"''■■'^- '"""-'^ 
part of the tillable land is m rcXtln V^' '" "'"""■ ^^'"' '^ '-'" 
that of the Western States and the sa^e Mnd of uHivronlr" M°" "''' 
send to market yearly 100,000 bales of cotton 50 000 I ', I ''"'"'' ""='" 
barrels of molasses, and rice tobacco """"• ^''•*'«» hogsheads of sugar, 75,000 

horses, milch eows, she<^p,rogs wLs po Zv T' "' ""'°"' "'''''' "^y^ 

valuable products to the'lmiouiutf n;inSS\rs"5 S^^^^^^^^^ 

and valuable resources in n, cli,.,.,i,> .„ „ i , '"""'""" '" il>15,000,000. Such varied 

else on the face of the earth "'""" '"" ^"'"^' '"" f'""' ''"XWhere 

No richer land cin brfound any" he'' T '""' ^T"""''' ''''' °""'^'" '''"''' ^■ 
of sugar woo,l, and the swamnscon • '^' ■■"'' "''''^"^' ""''<='■«' "'"' the best 

timber for building pi i^oTesTi for ho!^, "". '""^'f "'**"= ™"P'^' "^ «'« hest ot 
The most no^ed pX ioL o tS slt"" "'' '"^ '"" ^"^''^ P'"'"'«-" 
Cotton is u^rown more lar^et n Ll ""'" '°"'"'' ^"?«-cane and rice, 

reports .showing that 78i pe^c ^t of Z""?"'''""" "' "" ^^■'"^' "'« "ensus 
north of the latUude of 1 mom of the'R^rR^r^^^r^'r '^ ''™<""=«^ 
eotton is almost entirely replaced hv ,1.1 ,, • tidewater parishes 



306 LOUmiANA. 

July, and no labor is then needed in the crop till the 1st of November, when the 
ripe cane is ready for the mill. Sugar-cane is not subject to disease and the 
ravages of bugs and insects like most other crops. Small sugar farms, where from 
20 to 100 hogsheads of sugar are made by white labor, are very i)rofitablc'; tliey 
are a complete success." 

Within the last two or three years considerable activity in silk culture has 
taken place. The cultivation of jute is also leceiving attention. Both of these 
have been referred to in the introduction. 

The production of rice has been steadil^^ increasing in Louisiana, and its 
quality will compare favorably with that of the famed rice of South Carolina and 
Georgia. 

All the crops of the Northern States are raised to a more or less extent. 
Wheat is limited to the northwestern part of the State. Corn is grown lai-gely. 
Tobacco is a prominent crop. The raising of early vegetables for the Western 
markets is a profitable business. What has been quoted in reference to the pro- 
ductions of the six southwestern parishes will apply in a measure to nuich of the 

State besides. 

MINERAL RESOURCES. 

Among the resources of Louisiana only lately utilized is the rock salt at 
Petite Anse Island. Dr. Jones says: 

" Fortunatel}', Louisiana produces her own salt of the purest quality and in 
vast and unknown quantities, in Petite Anse or Avery's Island. 

"Louisiana rock salt presents the form, appearance and optical properties of 
pure chloride of sodium. The large crystalline masses are so perfectly trans- 
parent and free from all extraneous matter, and are so uniform in their structure 
and density, that they would be suited in all respects for the most delicate philo- 
sophical experiments ujion the transmission of heat through ditferent media. Tlie 
entire mass of the sami)les selected was made up of crystals and fragments of 
crystals, derived from the cube, the primitive form of chloride of sodium. The 
crystals present a foliated texture and distinct cleavage; they feel when rubbed 
in the hand diy, and leave no impression of moisture or of saline matter. 

"The samples of Louisiana rock salt su1)mitted to analysis, as v^cll as the 
large solid masses weighing several tons, are the purest and finest samples of rock 
salt that have ever come under ni}' observation. 

"One hundred grains of Louisiana rock salt yield upon analysis: 

Chloride of sodium (common salt) 99.617 

Sulphate of lime 0.318 

Sulphate of magnesia 0.062 

IMoisture (dried at 300°) 0.093 

"It will be observed from this analysis that the Louisiana rock salt contains 
Jess than one-half of one per cent. (0.473) of those substances wiiicli may be con- 
sidered as foreign, viz: moisture and sulphates of lime and magnesia, and wliich 
are found in greater or less quantities, according to their puritv, in almost all 
samples of salt." 

lie makes an analysis of Turk's Island salt, and shows the Louisiana sui)erior. 
He also says it contains nothing injurious to meats. 

In "Mineral Resources of the United States," Prof. E. W. Ililgard has an 
article on "The Salines of Louisiana," in which he says: 

" A salt-bearing formation appears in Louisiana in two widelj' separated 
])ortions of the State, and under two different aspects. One is a group of salty 
flats or 'licks' in the northwestern part, in the parisiies of Webster, Bienville and 
Winn, northward of Natchitoches; the other is the great rock-salt mass of Petite 
Anse or Avery's Island, situated in the sea marsh on the shoi-es of Vermillion 
Bay. Last year large quantities of a grade corresponding to the Turk's Island 



LOUISIANA. 



307 



salt were shipped to the extensive pucking-liouses in Chiea-o, Milwaukee and 
Kansas City. The article was found to be especially adapted as ' headin- ' salt for 
packers use, both on account of its purity and the slowness of its dissolution 
Large orders from these points have been renewed." 

The report on Southwestern Louisiana issued by the Agricultural Depart- 
ment says: ^ 

" Shortly after the late war a company was formed to work the mine A 
Shaft was sunk and some work done, but the enterprise was abandoned in a short 
time and lay idle until 1878, when another company was formed to carry on the 
\vork, but findmg that a much larger capital was required to put it on a successful 
looting than they had anticipated, they in turn, after a very short trial, retired in 
lavor of a company of New York capitalists, who are now minincr the salt and 
pushing t.u, work vigorously. They have put in a large quantity of the most 
modern machineivv, dug canals, built and chartered steamships and vessels, and 
lately have completed a railroad to the mine, whic-h places them in direct commu- 
nication with the entire railroad system of the United States, and permits ship- 
ment from the mine to any point without breaking bulk. The salt from this mine 
IS marketed princij)ally in Galveston, New Orleans and Mol)ile for the Southern 
States, hut large quantities are also shipped to the Western meat packers in 
Kansas City, St. Louis, Chicago, etc., and its sale is being pushed wherever a 
market can be found. 

" The salt is manufactured into any size or grade the market demands-from 
table salt as tine as flour up to lumps of solid rock as large as can be conveniently 
handled lor farmers' use. The manufacture is mechanical, no chemicals bein- 
Tised, tlie only precaution necessary to produce a beautiful white article bein- care 
and cleanliness in handling. The works are now producing 200 to 310 tons per 
day, and machinery is being erected to double this capacity." 

OTHER MINERALS. 

There are several groups of Umestone in Louisiana. One of the most 
important is a rock " partly substantially identical with the rotton limestone of 
Mississippi and Alabama." In his article on " Cotton Production in Louisiana " 
111 \(,1. A of Tenth Census of tlie United States, Prof Hilirard, in a brief view of 
the geological features of the State, says: 

"So far the geological strata show a deflnite dip southward to the -ulf- but 
northward of the Prairie Belt the dip seems to relate more or less to a (m'ostlv 
suoterranean) ridge or 'backbone' of older rocks-cretaceous limestone-which 
appears to extend from the Prairie Region of Southwestern Arkansas in a south- 
east direction, diagonally across Western Louisiana, mnrkino- approximately the 
divide between the Washita and Red Rivers, and reachinc. Uie gulf shore at the 
rock-salt deposit of Petite Anse, which undoubtedlv is a part of ^the same forma- 
tion as that from which, in Northern Louisiana, numerous salt springs flow 
Ihese springs or 'licks' occur in flats in Webster, Bienville and Winn Parishes' 
Some of them have been utilized for tlie manufacture of salt, and in all of tliem 
the cretaceous limestone is found within a short distance from the surfi.ce and of 
great thickness. Near Winnfleld this limest(me rises into a rid<re 75 feet above 
the surnmnding country. A similar ridge, but much lower, exists near Chicot- 
Mlle, in St. Landry Parish. It is again found overivin- the -reat sulphur bed in 
the artesian wells of Calcasieu, but at a depth of ;j()() f,>et, and it wiil doubtless be 
struck below the rock-salt bed of Petite Anse. * * * Not far from Brushy 
Valley is a salt lick known as Rayburn's lick, where much salt was made during 
tiuMvar^^is underlaid by gypsum and (cretaceous) limestone, from which good 

*Bienville I'arish. 



308 LOUISIANA. 

lime can be burned. * * * A similar lick is 'King's/ near the northeast 
corner of Red River Parish, where the limestone occurs in even greater abun- 
dance and of the best quality. A simihir limy spot occurs in the northeastern 
portion of the parish, near Judy Post-office, on the heads of Dugdemona Bayou." 

The State is rich in marls. The following is from an interview published in 
the New Orleans Daily States: 

"The marl especially is a fortune to the State. On my land there is a small 
lake called the bottondess lake, because a pole can be pushed down a great 
distance in the mud and no stable bottom is found. This is pure marl, and in it 
there are millions of tons." 

The Agricultural Department Report previously quoted says: 

"The deposits in the bottom of the bayous are rich beds of muck, into which 
a pole may be run to the depth of 10 feet or more. This is an excellent manure 
for gardens. The supply is inexhaustible." 

Recently several varieties of fine marble have been discovered. Building 
sandstone, fire clay and kaolin also exist. Gypsum has been found in several 

localities. 

TIMBER. 

Louisiana is rich in the extent and varieties of her timber. There are 
immense forests of pine, the different varieties of oak, black walnut, hickory, 
gum, lime, pecan, sycamore, magnolia, ash, and other trees. The New Orleans 
Times-Democrat, in a recent issue, said: 

"In Louisiana there are over 33,000 square miles of woodlands. In some 
portions of the State the forests average 97 per cent, of the whole land, leaving 
only 3 per cent, for clearings and cultivated fields. The timber differs with the 
character of the land. The prevailing forest growth of the good uplands is a very 
good one of mixed timber. Oaks of various kinds, but principally of the red, 
white, black and post-oak varieties; the dogwood, beech, sassafras, hickory, black 
gum, sweet gum, ash, maple and the short-leaf pine constitute the larger growth. 
"The growth of the pine hills is almost exclusively of majestic long-leaf 
pines, interspersed with an undergrowth of scrubby black-jacks. 

" The forest in the bluff lands— always magnificent— is made up of oaks of 
all kinds, especially the white and the water oaks varieties, magnolias, beeches, 
poplars and hollies. 

" The alluvial lands, except where cleared for cultivation, are covered with 
magnificent forests of cypress, gum, ash, pecan, cotton-wood, hackberry, the 
varieties of oak, maple, sycamore and holly. 

"The pine flats are found in the parishes of St. Tammany, Tangipahoa, 
Livingston and Calcasieu. Their growth is long-leaf pine, almost devoid of 
undergrowth. The supply of timber in the State seems inexhaustible. It is 
estimated that not more than one-eighth of the virgin forest of Louisiana has 
been felled. The live-oak is found on the southern or gulf coast, on the Chenieres 
and Buck ridges and bayous, and* along the banks of the streams throughout the 
alluvial region of the State. The forests of the State are filled with all varieties 
of timber adapted to the manufacture of woodenware, house or ship building 
After the live-oak in value comes the cypress. The split timber has been known 
to withstand the exposure of a hundred years in a fence. It is indestructible 
under ground or water, and is largely used by the sugar planters for coolers, 
barrels and hogsheads. It is used also for shingles and fencing. The long-leaf 
pine is the finest in the world for building houses or ships. These endless forests 
afford an ample field for the lumberman or manufacturer of tar, pitch, turpentine 
or charcoal. The oak is in demand in the shape of staves for exportation, and, in 
connection with the hickory, pecan, gum and locust, affords ample material for 



LOUISIANA. 



309 



wagon making. The great State of California grows not a single tree which will 
make a wagon hub." 

The estimates of the Census Depaitment placed the pine supply of Louisiana 
m 1880 at 48,213,000,000 feet-26,588,000,000 feet of long-leaved pine {pinus aus- 
trahs) and 21,025,000,000 feet of short-leaved pine {pinus mitis.) Louisiana is 
famous now for her cypress. It is comparatively new in building, but is getting 
very popular. A prominent writer has recently said of it : 

"A wood in which Louisiana has a great interest is cypress, wiiich the State 
grows in larger quantities than any other in the Union. Valuable cypress swamps 
exist along the Atchafalaya and its tributaries, and scattered throughout the 
southern portion of this State. The merits of this wood have only recently been 
discovered. When the saw mills began manufacturing cypress lumber they found 
very little demand for it, but they have since quadrupled their production, and 
find an easy market for all they can saw. This lumber is just beginning to be 
introduced into the Northern markets, and its advantages are now acknowledged. 
"The wood is fine grained. After exposure to the air it becomes of a dim 
reddish color. It possesses great strength and elasticity, and is lighter and less 
resinous than the wood of the pines. To these properties is added the faculty of 
long resistance to the heat and moisture of a Southern climate. The color of the 
bark and properties of the wood vary with the nature of the soil. Trees growing 
near the natural bed of rivers, and surrounded half the year with water to the 
height of three or four feet, have a lighter colored bark than those standing where 
water does not reach them, and their wood is whiter, less resinous and lighter. 
These are called white cypress; the others are darker, and so called red cypress. 
"Along the Mississippi River grow large cypress swamps just back of the 
cultivated land. In these swamps, where on the deep, miry soil a new layer of 
vegetable mold is every year deposited by the floods, the cypress attains its 
greatest development. The largest trees are 120 feet in height and from 25 to 40 
feet in circumference above the conical base, which at the surface of the earth is 
always three or four times as large as the continued diameter of the trunk. 

"This wood is now used for various purposes, and there is an increasing 
inquiry for it. Boat builders use it to a considerable extent. Many of the smaU 
boats belonging to the men-of-war in the United States service are constructed of 
cypress; much is used for water- tanks, sugar-coolers and cisterns on account of 
its durability; some enters into the construction of houses and house finishing, it 
being excellent in ceiling, and large quantities are made into shingles and railroad 
cross-ties. Some claim that shingles properly prepared will last 100 years; they 
are certainly very durable. Wood taken from submerged swamps, which has been 
in contact with the decaying influences of mud and water for untold centuries, is 
found to be in an excellent state of preservation. Cypress logs have been taken 
from the soil deep underneath New Orleans in good condition. Evidences are 
abundant and conclusive in regard to the lasting properties of the wood; hence, 
it IS gradually creeping into use more and more each year. Already it is being 
used in many houses in New York City in finishing, with calls for more." 

LANDS. 

There are both United States and State lands in Louisiana subject to home- 
stead entry. The price of State lands when sold outright ranges from 12^ cents 
to $1.25, the former being for overflowed marsh land. A homestead of ItJO acres 
can be entered for about $14 cash and $0 at the expiration of five years. The 
United States lands can be entered under the Homestead Act, or can be bought at 
$1.25 to $2.50 an acre; IGO acres can also be procured from the United States 
Government under the Timber Culture Act. Thus 480 acres of land can be pro- 



310 LOUISIANA. 

cured in this State. Women can homestead the State land. Aside from tlie public 
lands, innnigrants can buy land in nearly every i)arish in the State in quantities 
to suit them, and at extremely low prices. The scarcity of labor and otlier causes 
have necessitated a reduction in the size of plantations, and land is sold in some 
instances at prices merely nominal. Considerable timber land is yet i)ur(;hasable 
at original prices, some parts of which are most bounteously timbered. 

MANUFACTURES. 

In manufacturing, Louisiana is making good progress, due to special advan- 
tages possessed by the State for certain branches of industry, such as the manu- 
facture of cotton goods, the manipulation of cotton seed, jute and roi)e factories, 
canning establishments, the manufacture of lumber, etc. The cotton mills in the 
State run :]9,()()8 spindles and 824 looms. 

The extent of the cott(m-seed oil mill industry in Louisiana may be gathered 
from the following extract from a recent address of Hon. T. J. Semmes at New 
Orleans : 

"To-day the oil mills of Louisiana consume 130,000 tons of cotton seed. The 
product is 7o,000 to 90,000 barrels of crude oil, worth on an average about $17 
per barrel ; 33,000 to 45,000 tons of oil cake and meal, worth about $26 per ton ; 
4,000 to 6,000 bales of linters or shoi-t staple cotton removed b}^ machinery from 
the hulls of the cotton seed, worth $25 per bale. The aggregate value of the 
whole product fluctuates annually from $2,200,000 to $3,000,000, while prior to 
the war cotton seed was thrown aside as useless except as a fertilizer, and that to 
a limited extent. This industry pays annually for river and railroad transporta- 
tion about $350,000; it pays for labor at the mill about S250,000, besides incident- 
ally affbrdiug a means of livelihood to numerous agents in the country, as cotton 
seed is an article of barter at country stores; it brings to our port annually a fleet 
of vessels to transport the product to other countries. This industr}'^ is jqI in its 
infanc}'; its possibilities are vast." 

Like all the Southern States in which there is a large supply of yellow pine, 
the business of manufacturing lumber has greatly increased. Saw mills and wood- 
working establishments are springing up, and are proving profitable enterprises. 

As an inducement to the establishment of factories in the State, the following 
article has been embodied in its Constitution. Article 207 of the Constitution of 
1879, after enumerating the property used for worship, charitable institutions, etc., 
which are exempt from taxation, goes on to say : 

" There shall also be exempt from taxation and license for a period of 10 
years from the adoption of this Constitution, the capital, machinery and other 
proi)erty emj)loyed in the manufacture of textile fabrics, leather, shoes, harness, 
saddlery, hats, flour, machinery, agricultural implements and furniture, and other 
articles of wood, marble or stone; soap, stationery, ink and paper, boat building 
and chocolate ; provided that not less than five hands are employed in anyone 
factory." 

EDUCATION. 

The State has a system of public schools. The amount appropriated for their 
support has not heretofore been enough to ensure the thoroughness and etficiency 
characteristic of the systems of some of the otlua- States, but the interest in free 
schools is increasing, and there is no doubt that in a short time the schools of this 
State will be placed on a more substantitd basis, and that provision will be made 
for a more thorough training of teachers. 

There are numerous private schools and colleges. The Tulane University of 
Louisiana at New Orleans is one of the leading institutions of learning in the 
South. 



LOUISIANA. 3U 

LAWS. 

The following are some provisions of law that will be of interest: 
*' The General Assembly shall levy an annual poll tax for the maintenance of 
public schools upon every male inhabitant in the State over the age of twenty-one 
years, which shall never be less than one dollar nor exceed one^lollar and a half 
pe'r capita, and the General Assembly shall pass laws to enforce payment of 
said tax. 

" The State tax on property for all purposes whatever, including expense of 
government, schools, levees and interest, shall not exceed in any one year six mills 
on the dollar of its assessed valuation, and no parish or municipal tax for all pur- 
poses whatsoever shall exceed ten mills on the dollar of valuation. 

"There shall be exempt from seizure and sale by any process whatever, 
except as herein provided, the ' homesteads ' 6(?/ia /t?e owned by the debtor and 
occupied by him, consisting of lands, buildings and appurtenances, whether rural 
or urban, of every head of a family, or persons having a mother or father, a person 
or persons dependent on him or her for support; also, one work -horse, one wagon 
or cart, one yoke of oxen, two cows and calves, twenty-five head of hogs, or one 
thousand pounds of bacon or its equivalent in pork, whether tliese exempted 
objects be attached to a homestead or not, and on a farm the necessary quantity 
of corn and fodder for the current year, and the necessary farming implements to 
the value of $2,000." 

FISH AND GAME. 

The Gulf of Mexico, the Mississippi River, the lakes and bayous, abound with 
fish of the greatest variety; and Louisiana produces not only the greatest abun 
dance of delicious fish, but she has also sufiicient to establish a large export trade. 

The markets of New Orleans abound Avith oysters, crabs, crawfish and shrimp 
of the finest quality and the most delicate flavor. 

No city in the world is better supplied with the most valuable products of 
her soil, forests and waters than New Orleans, and her resources in the matter of 
food and fruits are enlarged to the greatest extent by the boundless resources of 
the tropical islands and continental regions lying to the south. 

The inhabitants of New Orleans and Louisiana generally have as abundant 
supplies of the great staples of human food and of fruits and game, and of the 
actual luxuries of life, as any people on the globe. 

A recent writer has said of the southwestern parishes of the State: 

" The very poorest class of people live on what we of the Middle Northern 
States term luxuries. All the bayous and lakes are full of the finest fish, such as 
trout, black bass, gar, sachylia, sunfish, gaspcrgo, and numerous others which I do 
not call to mind just at this moment, and on these same waters abound in great 
numbers canvas-back, red-head, mallard, bald-pate, blue and green-wing teal^ and 
sunnner ducks. Wild geese are on the lakes and sea marsh the entire winter. All 
this is perfectly free. There are no ducking clubs or fishing monopolies here. 
Every one is at perfect liberty to fish and shoot. The best jack-snipe grounds in 
tlie world are found in the Teche Country. To give an idea of the quantity of 
snipe, I was one of a party of three that killed 53 birds on a piece of ground, 
measured as accurately as we could by stepping, that was a little less than an acre. 
Then we did not kill half that flew up. Snipe feed here by the thousand. They 
also have plover, rail, i)rairie chickens and quail in great abundance. I have seen 
gunners a little farther north tramping miles and miles to get a shot at birds found 
here feeding and jumping around seemingly in perfect security, for they are not 
molested here by the sportsmen. I allude to such birds as robins, doves, flickers, 
reed-birds, field-larks particularly, for they are very shy in the North. They do 



312 LOUISIANA. 

not fly away, but walk, and will let a person get within 1\) feet of them. There 
are also a great many deer in this county, which generally frequent the sea marsh. 
Opossum, coon, rabbit and red squirrel are very numerous, but are seldom or 
never hunted. There is uame always in season. -When it is out for one kind, the 
other is coming, so that a sportsman is always in his glory." 

NEW ORLEANS. 

No other city on this continent is so unique in its aspects as this, the chief 
city of Louisiana. Its quaint hurly-burly; its gay and giddy people; its love of 
pageantry; its surprising abandon; its fondness for parades; its union of bustle 
and idleness; the coarse savagerj^ squalor, ignorance, of part of its population, 
and the gentle refinement, high culture and effervescent brightness of manner of 
another; the stench of its gutters, and the floral glories of its gardens and parks; 
its grotesque and chaotic architecture; its markets, and their noisy and nonde- 
script vendors; the diverse dialects of its inhabitants; the eloquence of its clergy; 
the desecration of the Sabbath in games, entertainments, pic-uics, theatres and 
conduct of business; its extravagance in dress and the gayetyof it; its consum- 
mate beggars; its fine wines and cigars; its world-known carnival, and the 
matchless participation in its spirit; the knightly valor of its gentlemen, their 
liospitality and unspeakable charm of manner; the glorious beauty, elegance, 
sparkle, of its ladies— these and far more that defy enumeration give to New 
Orleans aspects kaleidoscopic and bizarre. 

The business possibilities of tliis most advantageously located city are almost 
beyond computation. " New Orleans enjoys advantages which are peculiar, and 
which must make her a great emporium of trade and commerce. These are the 
facilities for transportation of heavy freight by river; her system of railroads; 
her safe and deep water port ; her geographical proximity to Mexico, Central and 
South America. She is the natural outlet for the products and manufactures of 
the Mississippi basin and of the Western States. She should also be the distribu- 
ting point for the imports from neighboring countries. The Panama Canal, when 
constructed, will cause an enormous increase in her traffic. She is but five days 
from Colon, the mouth of the canal; one day's crossing will bring her to Panama. 
This means communication in six days with the western coast of Central and 
South America, and an absorption of all the heavy freight from our California 
coast, and the supply of the wants of the people on the western coast of Central 
America under such favorable conditions as to defy competition. More intimate 
connections with Mexico will stimuhite traflic between the two countries, a large 
portion of which must necessarily fall into the lap of New Orleans." 

New Orleans ought to be the great center of sugar refining. Her proximity 
to Cuba and her position as the emporium of the home suj)ply ; her river for dis- 
tribution, along with her railroads, show this. The unnatural competition of 
German beet-sugar cannot continue. She ought to manufacture flour from 
Southern-raised wheat, and distribute it to South and Central America, West 
Indies and Mexico. Many considerations urge her eligibility as a great cotton 
manufocturing city. Years hence Southern-raised wool will come here in great 
quantity, and woolen factories ought to spring up. Silk factories wx ought to 
confidently expect, too. Her proximity to Texas and South America for hijies 
point to her as a most proper place for manufacturing boots and shoes, harness, 
trunks and other articles into which leather laig(!ly enters. Here ought to be 
canned extensively oysters, shrimp, fish, terrapins, wild duck, figs, oranges, pine- 
apples, many vegetables, etc. 

Iron ship-building — and wooden, too, for that matter — ought to here find one 
of its most eligible localities. Proximity to coal and iron ; competing railroads 



LOUISIANA. 313 

from the fields of these minerals, with clown grades; a river entering, so to speak, 
distant fields to cheapen these products; the cheapest and best timber in the 
world— Southern white oak and yellow pine— near; deep water and plenty of 
room for launching— all these and more show the inducements in this industry. 
No place seems so fit for the scat of an immense industry in the manufactur- 
ing of furniture, whether one regards her proximity to the fine woods of the 
tropics, oi her contiguity to the abundant— almost untouched— woods of the 
South. This city could hardly have a rival in the country in the manufacture of 
either cheap or most elegant furniture. Comparative non-competition, largeness 
of territory for consumption, cheapness and facility of distribution, are all addi- 
tional and most important factors. 

New Orleans ought to be a prodigious producer of woodenware. This needs 
no further word. Rags are exported hence to New York. This is suggestive 
enough of paper manufacture. 

New Orleans ought to export the bulk of the tobacco raised in Kentucky and 
Tennessee. This product Avould thus bring more money to its producers. 

A large increase of capital, available for current uses, is badly needed in New 
Orleans. This city is now too dependent upon New York. 

Most Western importations ought to come via New Orleans, and the South 
will find her one of the most eligible ports for the exportation of her future 
home-made flour, cotton goods, canned meats and vegetables, boots, shoes, harness, 
farming utensils, machinery, etc. Coal and lumber, t'oo, ought to find large expor- 
tation from this port. There must be a great future in these. Certainly, New 
Orleans ought to be the great entrepot for the teas and silks of China and Japan 
and for the coffee and spices of the tropics. The completion of either the great 
canal across the Isthmus or Eads' ship railway will open a path which New 
Orleans ought to enter. 

"The South is the coming country." New Orleans is the gateway to the 
world to and from the South and West. 



TEXAS. 



It is with ;i sense of i^reat eiiibanassment tliat I niulertake a description of 
the State of Texas, ller vastness of area is oppressive to the contemplation, 
when attempting to convey a just conception of it. Her marvellous progress 
antiquates authentic statistics, and to do lier justice, one uuist disregard them 
and invade the realm of conjecture — a course always open to criticism, greedily 
seized by the caviller and detractor, and always repugnant to a writer desiring to 
secure conviction by unquestionable data. Again, Texas has had no geological 
survey, and in this regard she has done herself a gross injustice and made a most 
egregious mistake. While she, beyond cavil, has great mineral riches, their extent 
and variety are illy defined. Not to speak of them avouUI be rank injustice; to 
define them with even an approximation is impossible; to endorse the wild claims 
of enthusiastic ignorance or of sinister exaggeration is not to be thought of. 
Exploitation is in progress all tlie while. Great discoveries are claimed to have 
been made, of which mau}^ are, doubtless, true; and it is likely that Texas Avill 
add to her other stui)eud()us resources stores of mineral wealth as yet unsus- 
pected — certainly not foreshadowed as yet by any authentic scientitic exploitation. 

It is also true that Texas is largely in a transition state, in some aspects. 
Areas devoted to I'anges are coming into agricultural conditions. Instead of 
breeding cattle and selling them young, to be raised and fattened on AVestern soil, 
she will disuse more and more the ranche mode; raise corn, and rear and fatten 
lier ow^n cattle, and so vastly increase her OAvn w^ealth, as well as modify a char- 
acteristic vocation. 

It is certainly true, too, that Texas is gravitating, in connnon with other 
Southern States, more and more towards manufacturing. 

The great quantity of avooI she raises; her ascendency as a cotton State, sug- 
gest the manufjicture of these staples into fabrics, and there is progress that way. 

Her stores of iron and coal suggest possibilities for manufacture for home 
supply; and, Western consumption, it would be idle to forecast. 

Her wheat area and production, and the early ripening of the staple, suggest 
an industry in the manufacture of early flour for the Northern markets, (to be 
sent thence cheaply by water from Galveston or New Orleans,) and for South 
America and the West Indies. 

Any one can see that in this undefinedness of progression, in this undiscov- 
ered mineral wealth, in this ferment of transition and agitation of the public 
mind towards the new% it is difficult to write of Texas; for wliile, in a sense, well 
settled — populated — she is unsettled. She ought to be and may be a great manu- 
facturing State in cotton and woolen fabrics, but she is not; her capabilities and 
superb opportunities only promise it. 

She ought to be, unless appearances greatly deceive, a great producer of iron, 
coal and copper, yet she is not. 

But the great influx of population and capital ; the j^usliing, bustling, driving 
spirit of her people, promise at an early day an awakening to all great possibili- 



TEXAS. .15 

ties and a utilization of tijcm. Still, her phases make it inipossiblo to truly 
describe her; but enough is known to entitle her to the appellation she will one 
day win, without questioning— that of the Empire State; i\\Q facile pnnceps of 
American conunonwcalths in the mighty republic of the United States. 

The following general survey of the State is from the last census report: 
"Texas is the extreme southwestern State of the Union, the Rio Grande sep- 
arating it from :Mexi(;o, and the meridian of 108° forming the line between it and 
New Mexico. On the north the boundary is marked by the Red River from 
Louisiana to the meridian of 100°, thence northward of that meridian to its inter- 
section with the parallel of 86° 80' north latitude, and thence west to tlie meridian 
of 108°. There are 2l\5 counties in the State, 72 of which are still unorganized, 
and they vary in area from 150 to 12,000 square miles, the large counties Iving in 
the uninhabited portion of the State on the west. 

"The entire area, as estimated by Mr. Henry Gannett, geographer of the 
Tenth Census, is 205,780 square miles, which includes 8,490 square miles of water 
area, comprising coast bays and gulfs, rivers and lakes, leaving 262,290 square 
miles of land surface alone. 

"The area of Texas, therefore, conq)rises 8.7 per cent, of the entire area of 
the United States and Territories (8,025,000 scpiare miles), and,' comparing it with 
other States, we find it to be nearly as large as the combined areas of Louisiana, 
Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia and Florida, or of that of the New England and 
Middle States, with Ohio and Illinois, all condjined. Li comparison'' with the 
countries of Europe, w^e find that Texas is larger than either the Austrian or the 
German empire, France, or the islands bf Great Britain. 

" It is estimated by Mr. Gannett that of the entire area of the State, 129 200 
square miles comprise the inhabited portion, with a population of 1,591,749 
giving an average of a little more than 12 persons per square nnle. The remain- 
ing 138,000 square miles (land area) include the southwestern prairies and the 
plains and gypsum lands of the west and northwest. 

"Between the extreme east and Avcst points of the State there are about 18 
degrees of longitude, or a little more than 900 miles; from north to south there 
are included about 10.75 degrees of latitude, or nearly 750 miles. 

"In the State of Texas we find combined a great diversity in both soil and 
topography, the former passing from the extreme of fertility on the Red River on 
the north, the Brazos in the middle and the Rio Grande on the extreme south, to 
the extreme of sterility in the sand desert of the south; in toi)ography, from the 
extreme of low and flat ])rairie lands and a very little marsh along the coast, by 
gradual transitions and elevations, to the chains and peaks of mountains on the 
far west, whose sununits are 5,000 feet or more above the sea. 

"To these extremes may be added that of population, for we find on the east 
and central (north and south) parts of the State comparatively thickly-settled 
counties and large and flourishing towns and cities, while on the west emigration 
and settlements have scarcely yet reached the foot of the plateau of the great 
plains. 

"To complete the i)icture of extremes, as it were, we find that several of the 
great agricultural regions that form so prominent a feature in the other Southern 
States have their termini in Texas, and are cut olf on the southwest either by the 
prairies of the coast or by the great mesquite aiul cactus chaparral prairies of the 
Rio Grande region, or they abut against the eastern l)lutfs of tlie plains. 

"The coast of Texas presents features different from those of any other State; 
for while in other States the mainland coast is greatly cut up into large bays, 
extending many miles inland, it is here bordered by an almost continuous chain 
of islands and peninsulas, (the latter having the same trend as the islands ) The 



316 TEXAS. 

gulf border of this cbuin is a very regular line southwest from the D?outh of the 
Sabine River or lake to near Corpus Christi, which occupies the highest point ou 
the entire coast, and thence turns with a regular curve south and slightly south- 
east to Mexico. The islands and peninsulas, which are separated from the main- 
land by distances of from 10 to 20 miles, more or less, are covered with heavy 
belts of sand and sand dunes, rising l."> or 20 feet above the beach. The latter 
skirt the shore line for many miles, and, as on Galveston Island, are usually broad, 
and offer many inducements to pleasure-seekers. The longest of these islands is 
Padre Island, which extends from Corpus Christi Bay to near the mouth of the 
Rio Grande, a distance of more than 100 miles. The large estuaries that have 
been formed at the mouths of the streams, except the Sabine, the Rio Grande, and 
those of the Brazos section, form another feature peculiar to the Texas coast. 
The border lands of these estuaries are usually high, their almost vertical clay 
bluffs being w\ashed by the waters of the bay, and the open prairies of the uplands 
often extend to their very edge. 

*' Mr. Gannett estimates the water area of the coast bays, gulfs, etc., to be 
2,510 square miles, and that of the rivers and lesser streams at about 800 square 

miles." 

CLIMATE. 

" 7'emperature. — The large territory occupied by the State naturally presents 
a variety of climate, and w'e find from the reports of the United State Signal 
Stations for 1S80 (a statement of W'hich has been furnished me from the chief 
office at Washington) that while the coast counties are warmed by the sea breezes 
during the winter months and have a mean temperature of 53° in December, the 
northern counties along Red River suffer severer weather, the temperature of 
Denison for the same month being 41°. The minimum and maximum extremes 
during December were at Galveston 18° and 72°, and at Denison 2° and 76°. At 
Corsicana, an intermediate point, the extremes were 6° and 80^, w^ith a mean of 
47.4°. Brownsville, situated more than three degrees south of Galveston, has for 
the same month the same minimum (!8°) and a higher maximum (83°). 

"During the summer months the northern counties of the settled portion of 
the State enjoy cooler nights and hotter days than those of the Coast, though the 
mean temperature was the highest on the coast by several degrees. July at Gal- 
veston and August at Denison were the hottest months, the average temperatures 
being respectively 83° and 80°, with maximums of 93° and 101°. 

"Eagle Pass, on the Rio Grande, seems to be the hottest place in the State, 
its maximums for the months fiom the first of March to tlie last of July being 
greater than was recorded at any other point during tne same time, and that for 
the months of June and July, 108°, being also the highest in the State for the year. 

"At Rio Grande City a maximum temperature of 105° was recorded in April 
and June, and at Fort Stockton, in Pecos County, 100° in June. At Brownsville 
and San Antonio the highest temperature, 95° and 98° respectively, was reached 
in July. 

" Fort Elliott, in the northwestern part, or Panhandle, of the State, enjoys 
the coolest summers, the thermometer for the three months not rising above 86.7°. 

"One of the most prominent features of Texas climate is what is commonly 
termed * the Texas norther,' a sudden and extreme change of temperature pro- 
duced by a rush of cold wind from the north, usually coming unannounced, 
though sometimes indicated by a haziness in the northern sky. The northers are 
usually preceded by a warm spell of 24 hours, more or less, and the change of 
temperature is very great, sometimes in the w inter months falling as mucn as 30° 
or 40°, though usually much less. They continue about three days, the second 
being the coldest, and are succeeded by warm weather, though sometimes the 



northers Ibllow each otlier so closely as to produce eight or ten days of cold 
They may be expected at all times of the year; and it is customary for travelers 
to be provided with blankets, even for a trip of a few days. These northers are 
sometmies accompanied by rain, and are classed as dry or wet northers. The 
summer northers are not as frequent as the winter ones nor as marked, sometimes 
being oppressively close and warm, instead of cold." 

Western Texas has an elevation of about 400 to 1,600 feet above the level of 
the sea. The atmosphere is dry, dense, very invigorating, fi-ee from fogs and 
malaria. 

The climate of Western Texas, according to the isothermal lines, which 
differ materially from the parallels of latitude, is placed, San Antonio being the 
principal city, in average temperature with Guaymas, Mexico, New Orleans^ La., 
Madeira Islands and Canton. The climate receives some of its mildness from the 
great ocean current or gulf stream of the Atlantic Ocean, which makes its circuit 
of about 10,000 miles, bringing its heat from the equatorial region, and throwing 
its warm streams hundreds of miles inland; and it fortunately escapes the chilly 
winds of the Florida coast, caused by the body of cold water coming from the 
north and insinuating itself between the land and gulf stream, the coast of 
"Western Texas being hundred miles beyond its terminus. It is the Pacific Ocean 
current (Kui-a Sewa stream) which imparts to the coast climate of California 
much of its mildness. 

Western Texas is again favored by nature in the abundance of her disinfec- 
tant (ozone). This element of the atmosphere is so abundant that meats are 
preserved perfectly in the open air without salt. The bodies of hundreds and 
thousands of dead animals lying on the prairies emit no odor whatever. It is 
this, with the other elements of a pure atmosphere, which removes tubercle and 
cures the consumptive. It is a well-established fact that yellow fever cannot pre- 
vail here as an epidemic. It is equally true that ozone constitutes the exemption. 
I again quote from the census report : 

''Rainfall and Water Supply.— The winds that bring rain and thunder-storms 
usually come from the southwest, those from the north being mostly dry. From 
the records of the United States Signal Office it seems that during 1880 the 
greatest amount of rain fell at Galveston, amounting to 50.1 inches, and at Deni- 
son 46.3 inches, while at Corsicana, San Antonio, Fredericksburg and Bracketts- 
ville, lying in a northeast and southwest course from each other, the precipitation 
was over 40 inches. The least amount of rainfall (from 16 to 24 inches) was 
reported from Fort Elliott, in the Panhandle, Fort Davis, west of the Pecos 
River, and Rio Grande City, in Webb County, on the southwest, while at several 
other points on the west and along the Rio Grande it was less than 30 inches. 

" AVith regard to the seasons, it seems that the winter months are the driest 
of the year very generally throughout the State, the precipitation varying fi-om 
three to seven inches, and much less in Denton County and several points on the 
west and southwest. During the spring months the rainfall was greatest in the 
eastern counties, amounting to from 12 to 13 inches. At all other points, except 
San Antonio, Mason, Fredericksburg and Fort Griffin, less than nine inches was 
obtained, the country west of the Pecos River being very dry. 

"During the summer months the country around Corsicana suffered greatest 
from droughts, while Denison, San Antonio and other places over the west and 
southwest enjoyed their greatest rainfall for the year, the maximum for any one 
month in the year throughout the State (21 inches) having been reached at 
Brownsville in August. 

"The fall months vary but little from those of summer, except that there is 
more rain in the eastern counties. From the reports given, San Antonio seems 



318 TEXAS. 

to eujoy the greatest regularity in its monthly rainfalls, there being but one 
month when it was less than two inches, while its maximum for any month of 
the year was 8.6 inches. The record of Corsieana shows very nearly the same 
regularit}', a maximum of 7.7 inches 

" The country west and southwest of the black prairie region is visited by 
rains, chiefly between the tirst of IVIay and the last of September. These rains 
come suddenly, and, while lasting but a few hours, are drenching in character, 
flooding the country, and liencte probably producing the great ravines or arroyos 
that form a prominent feature of the southwest. The water soon disappears; the 
small streams are dry throughout the greater part of the year, and dependence is 
put chiefly upon the larger ones that have their sources from springs at the foot 
of the great plains. In the red loam region, on the north, parties have sometimes 
been successful in digging wells that aflbrd a supply of water for a portion of the 
summer, and, when near a village or town, such wells, or even streams of water, 
are a source of revenue to the owners. Attention is now being turned to the 
sinking of artcsiiin wells, Init I know not with wliat success their efforts have 
been met. 

"In the black prairie region, occupying the central portion of the State, the 
various small streams usually become dry during the summer, and some trouble is 
experienced in obtaining a sufficient supply for general purposes. Wells cannot 
be relied upon, and their water is so strongly saturated with lime from the rotten 
limestone rock (cretaceous) as to be almost unfit for domestic uses, thus compel- 
ling families either to build cisterns or to haul water in casks and barrels from 
some neighboring stream, sometimes sevej'al miles distant. In the large cities 
water is furnished from artesian wells 700 feet or more in depth, the supply 
coming from beneath tlie rotten liuiestone formation. 

"The timbered region of Eastern Texas is better supplied with water than 
any other part of the State. Springs of good freestone water are found in almost 
every county, and wells furnish an abundant sup])ly for domestic purposes. The 
small streams usually become dry during the sununer months, and artificial reser- 
voirs, or simply earth embankments, collect a sufficient amount of water during 
the rainy seasons for faim and stock purjjoses." 

Although Western Texas has nuich less rainfall than much of the South, she 
has, in all except a small area there, more than the western side of the United 
States, (except a small area here and there,) until the influence of the Pacific 
Ocean is felt in Washington Territory, California and Oregon. The belt of 20-35 
inches readies near the westein border of Texas, and it increases coming east 
until it reaches, on the coast, 60 inches and above, ranking with the heaviest in 
the United States, and onl}' found in a very narrow area. It will be sufficient to 
say that, leaving out a ver}'' narroAV western area, the dr3'est part of Texas is 
better watered than much of Colorado, part of Western Nebraska, and a good 
deal of Dakota, Montana and other States. The belts of rainfall run in a sinuous 
line north and northeast, and are of various widtlis — from one-half or less to a 
degree or more of longitude. They i)enetrate clear up to the British possessions. 
Here and there these areas are deflected by rivers, but the decided course is north, 
and increases in quantity of rainfall as they come east. 

Fortunately for Texas, much of her very best land is in an area of ample 
rainfall for crop making — from the Sabine River, on the east, (where there are 50 
inches of rainfall, ns high as the 31st parallel,) to the Brazos, as high up as above 
the 35th degree of latitude, where the least rainfall is 35 inches per annum. In 
parts of the West, the best land is in dry areas and with limited time for crop 
making — a matter of exceeding moment, as every Western farmer knows. 



TEXAIS. P,19 

Even the Staked Plains {Llano Estdcado), once supposed to be next to useless 
for man, now seem to show plenty of water by digging; and even this area is no 
worse off for rainfall than considerable of Colorado, New Mexico, quite a consid- 
erable area of Western Nebraska, a great deal of Dakota, Wyoming, Montana, 
and even a slice of Western Kansas. 

So important a matter is this that it is worth pausing upon, for it opens an 
area in which there seems much of meaning to the country in the years to come. 
It is a revelation, really ; for only a year or two ago, when the writer was travel- 
ing through that country, water for the locomotive had to be carried many miles 
from the east. Here is an extract from a paper published near that area : 

" It is no longer a problem about securing water on the Staked Plains. Wells 
of i)ure living water are to be had from 20 to 100 feet deep, and, by the use of 
wind-mills, water will soon be made to flow as freely and abundantly on tlie plains 
as in any section of the State. The cattle and sheep will nip the luxuriant grasses 
that have heretofore gone to waste because the water was hidden a few feet under 
the ground. Nature has bountifully supplied this section with water, which only 
needs a little muscle to l)ring it to the surface. Mr. W. T. Stewart, who is boring 
wells for a land company northwest of here about GO miles, is meeting with splen- 
did success. He began about the 1st of July, and has already completed 12 wells, 
with a bountiful supply of water in all of them. In no instance has he failed to 
get plenty of good water, nor in any of them has he gone exceeding 100 feet." 

Here is more to the same effect from the Texas Live Stock Journal : 

" Messrs. Brune & Graham, who are wool growers in Hall County, Texas, 
have settled on dry land, and consider the best property they own besides their 
sheep to consist of a Avind-mill, pump and attachments, which they make good 
use of. At 100 teet deep they found an abundance of water for their 3,000 sheep, 
and in going to this trouble and expense consider themselves amply repaid. They 
found a better range than if they had gone on a watercourse, and obtained better 
water for their stock, 

"]Mr. Lee Dyer, ranchman of Hall County, wlio controls an extensive tract of 
land, has improved his headquarter ranch by the same method, and has constructed 
several large tanks during the past j^ear. 

"Messrs. Gannon, ranching on the plains, have successfullj' found water 
without going deep. 

*' The Quaker colony in Crosby Count}^ have found water at a depth of 41 feet. 

*' A sheep raiser in Nolan County is watering several thousand sheep at One 
good well, and in the country west of Midland and thereabouts the drill is work- 
ing constantly. 

"We learn of several companies intending to use the drill and the scraper 
during the coming winter, instead of discharging hands. This is a move in the 
right direction. It adds to the carrying capacity of the range, opens new ranges 
and relieves the heavy pressure of stock on the streams, leads to greater improve- 
ments and adds to the wealth of the country. 

"Want of water need be no detriment to Texas, neither in the older counties 
nor on the plains. Fiftv cents per acre will water the dryest land we have and 
utilize the millions of acres now going to waste, affording to Texas an indepen- 
dent ]iosition. in enabling the State to carry witli profit the increase of herds and 
flocks for 3'ears to come. 

" Water is the first necessity of Texas stockmen, and there seems to be no 
limit to the quantity if stockmen will make but an effort to find it." 

In considering the capabilities of Texas as to sustenance of stock, her annual 
rainfall must not be lost sight of ' All except the country west of the Pecos 
River— a comparatively small area— is in the region from 15-20 inches per annum 



320 TEXAS. 

jiml al.ovc. The Panbandle is in tliis category— 15-20. Most of the great range 
district of the Northwest is considerably lower than this. 

Then, Texas borders the gulf; has no high intervening mountains to extract 
the moisture from the damp gulf winds before they reach her area, and has over 
considerable areas heavy dews, which the Northwest lacks.* All these will count 
for more when grasses like Bermuda and others shall have come in to succeed the 
native grasses, for Bermuda will support more stock to a given area than any 
grass known. 

Then, the bulk of this rainfall is in the spring and summer, or the growing 
season — a matter of the utmost importance. Thus, for illustration, that part of 
the Panhandle in Texas having an annual rainfall of 15-20 inches has a spring 
and sununer rainfall of 10-15. This permits a large cai)acity of support — very 
different from an almost rainless area — because the i)astures, after having been 
eaten over, come on again. 

TOPOGRAPHY AND SOILS. 

In the following description of the topograph}' aiul soils of Texas, I have 
drawn largel}' upon the census report : 

The State of Texas, with its immense teiTitory, naturally presents agricul- 
tural features greater in variety, perhaps, than those of any other State in the 
Union. Its position at the southwestern extreme of the agricultural regions of 
the South gives to a part of the State features similar in most respects to other 
Southern States. Including, as it does, the southeastern borders of the great 
Western plains, the lands of the western part of the State resemble those of New 
Mexico. Those of the gypsum formation and of the red loam region seem only 
to extend northward into the Indian Territory. The following agricultural 
regions may be conveniently distinguished: 

1. Timbered upland region of East and Central Texas. 

2. Southern and coast prairie region. 
8. Central black prairie region. 

4. Northwestern red loam lands. 

5. AVestern and northwestern uninhabited region. 

6. River alluvial lands, including the Brazos delta or " sugar-bowl." 

THE TIMBERED UPLAND REGION OF TEXAS. 

The timbered region, which name is popularly applied to all that part of the 
State lying east of the central prairies and southward to the coast prairies, and 
which here is made to include also "the cross timbers" of the former, embraces 
an area of 45,995 square miles. It covers the eastern part of the State from Red 
River southward to the marshes of the Sabine River, and extends south westward, 
becoming more and more narrow, until it nearly reaches the Frio River, about 
100 miles from the Rio Grande, where it ends. 

The area, exclusive of the cross timbers, is 40,685 square miles, or greater 
than that of either Kentucky, Indiana or -Virginia. It includes all or the greater 
part of about 50 counties. 

The country is properly divided into three general divisions, the oak, hickory 
and short-leaf pine uplands, the long-leaf pine hills and flats, and the prairies, 
which are interspersed throughout the former. In addition to these, the bottom 
lands of the entire region will be separately described. 

Oak, Hickory mid Short-leaf Pi'/ve Uplands. — This group occupies nearly the 
entire area of the timbered lands southward to the southern part of Sabine, San 



*The dews in that area of the South more particularly within the influence of the saturation of 
the gulf evaporation are exceedingly heavy ancT precipitated very early. Very shortly after sunset 
the quantity is equivalent to a tolerable shower of rain. 



TEXAS. 321 

Augustine, Polk and San Jacinto Coniiti^« ir ■i\ Qsn 
presents tLree genera, tfeatures. ^^^:^:t:2:^^.rZr:^'.^r'^' 

region is more tliiclcly populated than any other in the St^JZ . '' 

a little more than 16 persons per «quare'mil The p^ ioronanr ^7 
cultivation (13,3 per cent.) is a very little less than tZ of 2 T, '""''' 
region. While the percentage of thele devoted to'tL lltl flTo" T/f a 
far greater proportion than is found in any other part of the State The «tL 

..evalence Of the -rt-,eaf ^ecies^tf ^nrcef tT ^ L^^^^^^^^^ ^J ^ 
county of Bowie, a large part of Cass, and portions of the counties south holw 
mg the long-leaf pine region, and also extends in belts along the Nueces Rive, in 
Cherokee and Anderson Counties, constituting what are olen called S-Tes " 

«oilsfromlot^"'r"f^'"' ^"^""^ ™'""^''^"'' ''-« »g"^' sandy or uy 
soils f,om 10 to 13 inches deep, a yellowish sandy subsoil two or more feet deen 

«::^sm:fi"°Th:''''- '"""^'l "^■'"■^ ™'>- S-'"'^' "^« <=>-^3' often Z ng nef To' 
the suiface. The pme is interspersed more or less with oaks -m,! hi^t j 

the bottom lands of the creeks that flow through t'e region hive a towth of 

sweet gum, elm oak etc. The sandy nature of the land maki UlLe easv 

Drainages good, and it is claimed that the lands will produce an average of Zft 

poundsof seed cotton per acre in favorable seasons without the aid of ffrtili.ers 

occiJ •: f num :7f";h: inSTar r "" r--'--^^^^-^ 

Ca.s, Marion and R.k. 'OZ^Z bm"rind" ^'^!' 
extends beyond the Guadalupe River, but, with the exception of T few isoted 
hi Is, the country ,s not so broken, the rocks rather formin. beds beloV.I e M 
The iron hills of Cherokee County are from IM to on. f 7 , '""°""'e soils, 
level of the country, and are in sonferses hroa'for.h* tTpl tZ ZMZT 
masses of iron ore outcrop in large and small fragments Th- so of t, ,^ 

Red sandy and clayey lands occur in most of the counties of thP n.t ^ 
Ronf h.v„ r . ^^ P^^'"^ ^^^^^^ ^^ the west and the pineries and 



323 TEXAS. 

The surface of the country is generally rolling, sometimes hilly; the soil 
sandy to a depth of about 12 inches, and is very generally underlaid by a good 
clay subsoil, usually red in color. Decayed leaves and other vegetation has given 
to the surface soil a dark color an inch or two deep, adding nmch to its pro- 
ductiveness. 

The general timber growth of these lands is red, black, post and black-jack 
oaks, and hickory, with a thick scrubby undergrowth, and some short-leaf pine. 
The crops of the region are cotton, corn, wheat, oats, sugar and sorghum-cane, 
pease and upland rice. The uplands are best adapted to cotton, which comprises 
a large proportion of the crops. It usually grows to a height of three feet in dry 
and five or six feet in wet seasons, producing, it is claimed, from 800 to 1,(100 
pounds of seed cotton per acre when fresh, and from 600 to 800 pounds after 
many years' cultivation. The lands wash readily when allowed to lie idle any 
length of time, but as yet any effort to prevent this is exceptional. 

Prairies of the Eastern Tinibered Region — Sandy Prairies. — The prairies of the 
region differ from each other in character, those on the west partaking largely of 
the black waxy nature of the central prairies, while those on the east are lighter 
and sandy. In Cherokee County the latter are known as " brush prairies," from 
the fact that they are rapidly being covered with a low scrubby growth of reil, 
post and black-jack oaks. The past eight years is said to have witnessed a great 
change in this respect, and is attributed to the fact that they are not now yearly 
burned off, as formerly was the case. 

The soils of both these and the Boston prairies, in Bowie County, are light 
sandy or silty, and are not considered as productive as the adjoining timbered 
sandy uplands, the cotton plant not growing as high, and yielding only from 500 
to 700 pounds of seed cotton per acre when fresh. The prairies are very level, 
those of the Boston being about a mile in diameter, and interspersed with clumps 
of trees. 

Brown Loam Prairies. — In the counties of Navarro, Limestone, Grimes, 
Brazos, Burleson and Lee there are high, rolling and open prairies having a 
brown loam soil a foot or two in depth and an underhung heavy clay, which in 
the prairie valleys or lowlands forms very heavy waxy lands, similar in every 
respect to the black prairies of the West. The largest of these brown loam 
prairies covers a large part of the two first counties named, and lies along the 
eastern edge of the black prairie region, extending on the north and south into 
the adjoining counties, and covering an area of about 1,82.") square miles. 

The lands of these prairies have a rich brown loam soil from ] 2 to 24 inches 
in depth and a heavy reddish clay subsoil. Mesquite growth is plentiful. The 
lands yield well and are said to be very durable. Cotton grows well, often to a 
height of four or five feet, })roducing an average of about 800 pounds of seed 
cotton i)er acre. It is stated that very little of this land that has been long under 
cultivation now lies turned out for rest, its productiveness being as yet but 
slightly diminished. A large proportion of these prairie lands has never been 
under cultivation, and still is used for pasturage. 

The "San Antonio prairies" of Burleson, and those of Brazos and Grimes 
('ounties, are similar in charactcir to these describ(;d, and tlie same and even 
greater' })roductivenes8 is claimed for them. 

Bottom Lands of the Timbered Region. — Under this head are included only 
the lands of the smaller streams, those of the large rivers comprising a separate 
division. 

Sulphur Fork River lies mostly witliin this region on the northeast, and is 
parallel witli Red River, to which it is tributary, and flows almost due east. Its 
bottom lands, as well as those of the neig':'.»oring White Oak and Big Cypress 



TEX A S. 090 



Cicek. „n . M Clark an.l l.eavy l,„„n s.,il, quite deep, aud overlying a stiff bluish 
c ay. They have a tunber growth of hickory, pecan, ash, walnut and white oak 
«ith p,„, l,urr, overcup and Spanish oaks. Cotton is very much inclined to run 
to weed on these lands, and is represented as producing as much aa 1,500 rounds 
ot seed cotton p(?r acre in favorable seasons. 

Angelina and Neches Rivers, in their separate courses, belong to this division 
umttng soon after they enter the pineries. Their bottom land! are from one-' 
lou th of a tnile to one mile in width, and have a timber growth of oak elm 

wnne;cr C T"'' n "; '"^ ""<-g™-"' of cane, bam'boo, musc^^in; a d 
wild peac 1. The soil is a black loam from two to four feet deep over a he-.vv 
clay subsoil. Cotton grows to a height of five feet, and is said to riel w e 1 
fresh as much as 1,500 pounds of seed cotton, or from 800 to 1,000 poCs afte 

^dth of 2, ™"r'- 7'' '"'"■""'='' """'^ ""^^ "-•'- '"«- bottoms have I 
width of from one-fourth to one and a-half miles, and a timber growth of pine 

from 1 > tol^" 1 " H '''' '"'" " "'" *" •"^ " "-^ -""-t brown clayey foTm' 
from 1^ to 24 inches deep, underlaid by a heavier subsoil and by gravel at a depth 

o" from'^Tto ™ ■ '' rf T" "•^^ ''"'•' "^ "" «"» PO- '« "f -^ o"- 
or ti om 400 to 700 pounds after five years' cultivation 

and g o« Ih as that of the Brazos, to which its waters are tributary. A verv hic^h 
yield ,s claimed for both, viz : over a bale per acre ^ ° 

vuJm.Tr '""t "^ ":' ^'^"^'^ (^'■^*^ 'y"'S between the Brazos and Colo- 
St h a ti„:,r ""'t "f'' -"--«-. a^ they are subject to overflow. 
.,,,7 ; > .? ^ "'"' °'^ P'° *'''''• P™"»' '-In'. ^^' and hackberry When 

cu ivated they yield, it is said, about 1,400 pounds of seed cotton per acre The 
bo ton, lands of the Guadalupe River are subject to overflow ani therefore a e 
not under cnltivation. Its valley lands are rich and product v1,ai"::dark 
oa ny or often a bh.ck prairie soil two or three feet dt^p over a grav clayev s«t 
SOI , and at 10 feet a bed of sand and gravel. Cotton grows usuflly fronffiv , 
eigh feet in height and yields about 1.400 pounds of seed cotton per'acr 

Lake i? n',' iZ r" r""'" ';"""' '"""' "' ''''''" ^•^■"■•^-^^ J^"-" -"• Caddo 
i^ake, 1,1 llaiiison County, are from two to three iniles in widll, and have -t 

blue-j ck oak and myrtle thickets along the borders of the lake. The soil i, bhok 
aiKl stiff, and water stands on it during half of the year. The creek bott in .^ 
the same county have a growth of red oak, sweet -rum lii,-korv red elm 

"'" on t'lf^ r\ '"''-' ''"'' ^- not e..tensi.;,:;d:i:'lit;; nl^utr 
On the Sabine River, in Rusk County, there are some cvpress swamps Tte 

creeks of the couiiiy have a bottom growth of white, re<l, p.'.st and overoL oak 
sh maple and hickory, and a fine sandy soil 18 inches in .lepth over X a"' > 

pact chly, and said to produce from 1.000 ,0 l,o„0 p„„„<i, „/,,.„ ,„„„„ l^^ '^^, 
7/e Uni,.eaf P,ne Xeffion.-TUe region thus designated does not in .li^cfe ", 

d 1 r".: es l-m'";",""'^" "" '""-'""-P'- -'■.■""d,bnt,as in Ge ^i 
•" d , 111, 1 ^..ites, IS meant to represent only lands that are so sandv a. to sunnort 
a timber growth of little else than this species of pine '^' 

In Sabme. Panola and 01 her counlies there are large areas covered with . 
—'■"'f ,""■'." '"7"- '"'■'-. a-ociated with such 'Lrd w.,o Is s oal „d 
I .ekoij, an,l haMMg clay subsoils. They thus difler from the lands in the ni e 
sonthe.™ eounties. and are properly classed with the oak, hickory and ;b. ;e" 

and fl '*''"'"' ','""■■ '■"«'""■ "■• "'""-•"■^" a« <' '« '»"«'■ -ompriser both' Is 
and flats and embraces the counties of Newton, Jasper, Tvler Ora„4 an 

Nacogdoches, the eastern and southern part of Polk, an,l probably the south- 



324 TEXAS. 

eastern part of San Jacinto, as well as areas in Shelby and Panola and elsewhere. 
It covers an area of about 6,000 square miles. The "flats" are found in the 
southern part of the region between the Trinity and Sabine Rivers, and form the 
western limit of the pine flats of Louisiana and other States. The rest of the 
region is more rolling and well timbered, chiefly with long-leaf pine, and forms 
the western extreme of that great belt of pine timber so prominent from Texas to 
the Atlantic coast. 

The northern part of the pine region in Texas is interspersed with open 
prairies having a variety of soils, from sandy to stiff" black loams and clays, and 
is similar in position and other features to the Anacoco prairie of Louisiana. 
The timbered uplands have but little else than dark or gray sandy soils, with 
mostly sandy subsoils, sometimes to a depth of several feet, and are not consid- 
ered very productive. The country is sparsely setthid, with an average of about 
five persons per square mile. The chief industry of the people is the cutting and 
shipment of lumber. 

The lands under cultivation are chiefly the hummocks that lie along the 
creeks and larger streams. Their soils are sandy to a depth of many inches, and 
have a growth of oaks, hickory, beech, walnut, magnolia, etc. It is claimed that 
these lands will produce as much as 1,500 pounds per acre when fresh and 800 
pounds after eight years' cultivation. 2.1 per cent, only of the area of the region 
is under cultivation, and that is mostly devoted to corn. The cotton average is 
3.4 acres per square mile, comprising 25.6 per cent, of the tilled lands, with an 
average yield of 615 pounds of seed cotton per acre. 

The Cross Timbers.— The name of " cross timbers " is popularly given to two 
wide belts of timbered lauds that extend southward from Red River— the one, or 
""lower," in the central part of the black prairie region ; the other, or " upper," 
on the west of the prairie, or between it and the red lands. These belts resemble 
each other very mucli in their general features. 

The soils of the uplands are generally very sandy for a foot or more in depth, 
and are not considered valuable. Along the streams and in the lowlands the soil 
is a dark sandy loam with a clay subsoil, rich and productive. On it cotton grows 
four or five feet high, and, it is claimed, yields as much as 1,500 pounds of seed 
cotton per acre, even on lands that have been several years under cultivation. 

SOUTHEKN COAST PRAIRIES. 

The coast of Texas is bordered by a low and level prairie, reaching from the 
marshes of Sabine Pass westward to the densely timbered Brazos alluvial basin, 
and thence westward, with scarcely any interruption, to the Rio Grande, except- 
ing the narrow timbered lands of a few streams. "While there is a similarity in 
some of its features throughout its length, yet certain portions of the coast have 
such marked peculiarities as to merit a division Into three groups for purposes of 
description. These are the prairie region east of the Brazos alluvial, the^prairie 
region west of the Brazos al'mvial, extending to the Nueces River, and the south- 
western prairie region, lying between the Nueces and Frio Rivers to the Rio 
Grande. The entire region embraced is about 47,680 square miles, which is about 
the area of the State of "Mississippi. 

East of the Brazos Alluvial Region. — In the southeastern part of the State, 
lying between the Brazos and the Trinity Rivers, and extending eastward to the 
Neches, there is a large region of level prairie lands, having large areas each of 
gray silty and black waxy soils, interspersed with "motts" of pine or oak, and 
intersected by timbered streams. The region extends from the coast inlana into 
the counties of Waller, Montgomery and San Jacinto, and includes besides these 



TEXAS. 325 

all or portions of Jefferson, Liberty, Chambers, Galveston, Brazoria (eastern part) 
and Harris. 

The prairies of the northeastern part of the division usually tiave gray silty 
soils, and deserve more properly the name of "pine prairies;" but where the 
underlying Port Hudson clays approach the surface the result is a black waxy 
soil. On the northwest of the city of Houston, and extending nearly to Hemp- 
stead, in AVallcr County, there is but little to break the monotony of a level and 
open prairie. Southward to the coast the prairies extend almost uninterruptedly, 
covering areas of from 20 to 30 miles in breadth, and are cluiracterized by the 
absence of all growtli other than grasses and occasional motts of large hve-oak 
trees. Along Buffalo Bayou and otlier streams the uplands are well timbered 
with oak and pine, and in the immediate vicinity of the streams the nuiguolia 
{Magnolia grdndiflora) is a large and prominent growth. Thcnrees, and especially 
the live oaks, are very generally festooned with the greatest abundance of the 
long moss {Tillandsia v.sneoidea) so common in the coast region of all of the 
Southern States. The surface of the entire region is very level and even, Avith a 
descent to the coast so gradual as to afford no drainage to the soils, and, as a 
natural consequence, water renuiins in pools upon the prairies of the region until 
removed by evaporation. 

The immediate const lands from the marshes of Sabine River westward to 
the Brazos alluvial are almost entirely open prairies with a light sandy soil, 
becoming darker inland, and underlaid by a white concretionary clay. This 
latter comes to the surface near Clear Creek Station, 19 miles from the s'.ore line. 
Small natural mounds from 10 to 20 feet in diameter and several feet high cover 
some parts of this coast region. At Allen's Station, about 40 miles from the 
coast, the subsoil changes to a yellow clay with calcareous concretions. 

The soil of the region is very generally a liglit sandy loam underlaid at vary- 
ingidepths by heavy impervious clays. Large areas of black c;layey lands occur 
along the border of the Brazos alluvial, and eastward to Harrisburg and beyond 
the Trinity River, which are very similar to those described on the west of the 
Brazos. 

The loam prairie lands of the region are well supplied with the mineral ele- 
ments necessary for fertility, but from their want of proper drainage are not 
under cultivation. They are given up entirely to grazing purposes and the pro- 
duction of hay, for which the thick carpet of grass that covers them is admirably 
suited. The farms of the region are found in the timbered uplands that border 
Buffalo Bayou and some of the streams. 

West of Vie Brazos.— One of the prominent features of the southern and coast 
prairie region is the large area of black and stiff or waxy lands that occupies a 
central position between the Sabine and Rio Grande Rivers, andj-eaches from the 
coast northward into Washington County. In the counties of Calhoun, Victoria, 
Jackson, and the western parts of Matagorda and AVharton, these prairies are 
very broad and extensive, with a gradual rise from the coast inland for 20 or 30 
miles, and then become slightly rolling, the view iuterrupted here and there by 
the timber growth of the streams or "motts" of mesquite and live oak. On 
Lavaca Bay there is much Mexican scarlet bean {Erythrina) and a few " Brazil- 
wood" trees. Northward, in the counties of De Witt, Lavaca, Colorado, Fayette, 
Washington and Austin, the prairies are smaller, and are interspersed with sandy 
and timbered uplands and sandy prairies. In adjoining portions of Gonzales and 
De Witt Counties there are high and rolling sandy prairies, underlaid by sand- 
stone (Grand Gulf). In the lowlands and flats of these the soil is often a heavy 
black clay. On either side of the alluvial lands of the Brazos and adjoining 



326 TEXAS. 

Btreams, in Fort Beud uiul Biazoiia Counties, or the " sugar-bowl," there arc 
other strips of black prairies. 

As far inland as Clinton, in De Witt County, and Columbus, Colorado 
County, the prairies are underlaid by heavy light and blue-colored clays (Port 
Hudson) full of calcareous concretions, and often containing crystals of gypsum. 
They form bluffs from 15 to 25 feet high around Lavaca Bay and the inland lakes, 
and in them have been found large fragments of the bones of extinct mammoth 
animals. Limestone also occurs to some extent in these beds. Excellent grass 
covers the lands of the region, and the i)rairies are almost entirely devoted to the 
grazing of stock, the sandy timbered lands of the streams being used for farming 
purposes. The entire country is very sparsely settled, "nearest neighbors" being 
generally many miles apart. But little cotton is produced in the counties along 
the coast, but as we advance inland we find that crop receiving more attention, 
over one-third of the tilled land of the ui)per counties of the region being devoted 
to cotton culture. 

The soil of these prairies is black waxy or adobe in character, tenacious, and 
very difficult to till in wet seasons, while in dry weather it becomes hard and 
shrinks, forming deep and wide cracks — traps, as it were, for the feet of the 
unwary beast. Hog- wallow lands are found in localities thronglioiit the region, a 
feature resulting from the shrinkage and subsequent swelling and bulging out of 
the underclay upon access of water through the cracks when the winter rains 
come. The soil has a depth of from 12 to 24 inches, and overlies a lighter-colored 
and stiff clay, which sometimes contains gravel. The lands are thought to be 
best adapted to corn. Cotton grows to a height of from three to five feet, the 
yield being variously estimated to be from 600 to 1,000 pounds of seed cotton per 
acre when fresh and after long cultivation. Some planters place the estimate 
much higher. 

'The Southwestern Prairie Reyion. — The southwestern i)art of the State lying 
west of the Nueces and Frio Rivers is almost entirely a prairie region, and 
includes the agricultural counties of Frio, McMullen and Duval, and the counties 
of Maverick, Zavalla, Dimmit, La Salle, A¥ebb, Encinal, Zapata, Starr, Hidalgo 
and Cameron (the latter two, however, having large areas of river lands), which 
properly ma}' be included in what is termed "the desert." 

The entire country is very sparsely settled and almost exclusively devoted to 
stock raising. Mesquite and a scrubby chaparral variety, witli occasional live- 
oak trees and cacti, are almost the onl}' growth, giving to the region a barren and 
desolate appearance. '• The des€'rt " is a broad area of white sand lying along the 
border of the Laguna de la Madre from a few miles south of Corpus Christi to 
the Rio Grande alluvial lands at the inoutli of the Sal Colorado, and extending 
back (westward) to within a few miles of the Rio Grande, and up that stream to 
near Eagle Pass. 

THE CENTRAL BLACK PRAIRIE REGION. 

One of the most prominent features of the State is the broad region of high, 
rolling and black waxy prairie lands Ijing in the central part of the State, fj'om 
Red River on the north south-southwest to San Antonio, and thence westward. 
A line marking the eastern limit of the regi(m would begin on the east of Paris, 
in Lamar County, at the southern Gdi^a of the timbered river uplands, pass in a 
southwest direction to the east of Terrell, in Kaufman County, and four miles 
west of Corsicana, in Navarro County; thence south to Cameron, in Milam 
County, southwest to a point a few miles south of San Antonio, and westward to 
the edge of the great plains of the west. The western limit of the region has not 
been fully determined, except tliat it i)jisses from Montague south through the 
counties of Wise, Parker, Erath, Comanche, Lampasas, Burnet and Blanco; 



TEXAS. 327 

thence west through Gillespie and Kimble. The region has a widtii of about 140 
miles on the north, 100 in the middle, and is quite narrow on the south — not more 
than 50 or 60 miles. It embraces 23 and parts of 26 counties, covering in all 
about 26,050 square miles. A white rotten limestone (cretaceous) underlies the 
entire region and often appears on the surface. The eastcjn part of the region 
throughout its lengtli is composed of i)rairies, slightly rolling, and interrupted by 
frequent streams, which are bordered with narrow timbered valleys. In its cen- 
tral part is the broad belt of "lower cross timbers," extending scnUhward from 
the Red River to the Brazos, near Waco, in McLennan County. To the west the 
country is more and more rolling and broken, the bald hills on the extreme west 
standing out in bold relief as isolated peaks and prominent ridges, with high and 
abrupt sides facing the broad prairie valleys. Rotten limestone, accompanied by 
beds of cretaceous fossils, outcrops everywliere on the sides of tlic liills, in the 
valleys and in the beds of the streams. 

In its general level the country rai)idly rises from the east toward the west, 
the altitude of Dallas being 481 feet; Fort Worth, 30 miles westward, 62U feet; 
Weatlierford, 35 miles still westward, 1,000 feet. The latter place is near the 
western border of the reirion. On the south Austin has an elevation of 650 feet, 
San Antonio 575 feet, while Fredericksburg, 00 or 70 miles to the west, has an 
altitude of 1,014 feet above the sea. From San Antonio northwest to Cibolo the 
country is a rolling prairie, becoming more and more hilly, and covered with 
clumps of live oak and other timber. Thence to the Guadalupe River the hills 
increase in height, with alternating rolling prairies and flats. Limestone is abun- 
dant all the way to Fredericksburg. The countiy northward is well wooded, and 
granite begins at 17 miles. 

Mesquite is a common growth of all tlie prairies of the central prairie region, 
but especially in the south, w here, with a height of from 10 to 15 feet, it forms 
rather dense thickets. The "chaparrals" of this part of the State are formed 
mostly of a low thorny growth of what is known as " wesatche," belonging prob- 
ably to the mesquite family. 

The lands comprise three varieties, viz: Black waxy prairie or "adobe," 
covering the greater part of the region ; black sandy, occurring in localities along 
the borders of the former, and forming a transition to the sandy lands that border 
the streams; besides these are the bottom lands, iLe most important of which are 
described under the head of *' river lands." The first of these varieties, or the 
black waxy lands, are what their name would indicate — a heavy, deep black and 
tenacious clay, possessing a very high absorptive power (14 to 17 per cent.) Their 
extreme tenacity is illustrated and appreciated by the luckless teamster who has 
to drive his wagon across one of these prairies during a wet season. The black 
mud adheres in great masses to the wheels, filling up the spaces between the 
spokes and spreading out on either side, thus making an empty vehicle a load in 
itself for a team. The mud sticks in masses to the feet of those attempting to 
walk over these lands in wet weather. In dry weather the prairies assume alto- 
gether a different aspect; the roads become very hard and comparatively smooth, 
and the soil cracks open in every direction. 

llog-wallow Lands. — The underlying rock of the region, rotton limestone, 
comes to the surface very often, though chiefly on the high uplands, being covered 
to a greater depth by the soils in the lowlands. The soils have a general depth of 
from 12 to 24 inches, the only perceptible difference in the subsoil being a change 
in color from a black to a lighter yellow or drab-colored clay. 

The lands are very productive and durable, yielding about 800 pounds of seed 
cotton per acre, both when fresh and after long cultivation. Many farmers claim 
a greater yield, but this is exceptional. The plant grows to a height of from four 



328 TEXAS. 

to six feet, and is very often troubled with bliglit or "dying in spots" in the dry 
seasons at a time when it has about begun to bloom. 

Black Sandy Prairie Landa.— Those are formed by tlie commingling of the 
black waxy juist mentioned and the sands of the upland timbered lands, which are 
usually adjoining. They are generally underlaid by the heavy clay subsoils of the 
prairies. These lands are comparatively easy to till and are fully as productive as 
the waxy lands of the prairies. The plant grows three or four feet high, yielding 
from 800 to 1,000 pounds of seed cotton per acre. 

These prairies are usually level and i)rescnt excellent farming lands. 

The timbered uplands that border the streams in narrow belts have gray 
sandy soils 10 or 12 inches deep and a yellowish clay subsoil. They are usually 
called " i)ost-oak lands," from the predominance of that timber growth. Hickory, 
elm and mesquite trees are also connnon. The lands are easily tilled, well drained 
and produce well, and are tlierefore most preferred for agricultural purposes. 

The central prairie region is but sparsely settled outside of the towns and 
cities. The houses and farms are mostly situated in or near the timbered uplands, 
the prairies, with their excellent grasses, being reserved almost exclusively for the 
grazing of cattle. The level nature of the land and the comparative freedom from 
rocks lender it especially M'ell adapted to the use of improved cultivators and 
other agricultural implements. The seasons of sunmier and fall are always very 
dry, which, though sometimes cutting off the cotton crop as much as one-third, 
never produce a total failure. The droughts are felt most by other crops and in 
the scanty supply of water for stock and for domestic uses. Creeks and branches 
become dry, and the dependence is upon "tanks" or artificial ponds and cisterns 
filled by the winter and spring rains. Wells are unreliable, and their waters are 
to such an extent impregnated with lime and other salts from the rotten limestone 
as to make them unfit for domestic purposes. 

Within the past few years much interest has been taken in artesian wells, and 
a number have been bored in Dallas and Fort AVorth, frf-m which a bountiful 
supply of good water is obtained at a depth of 300 or 400 feet in the former and 
700 feet in the latter place, or, below the rotten limestone. They are probably 
practicable throughout this region at a depth of not exceeding 1,000 feet. 

NORTHWESTERN RED LOAM REGION. 

West of the upper cross timbers and the black prairie region there is a large 
region embracing what is known as the red lands of the northwest. It enters the 
State from the Indian Territory and extends westward and southward to the 
gypsum formation and the plains, while a large section passes southeast nearly to 
Austin and Fredericksburg. In this latter portion of the belt the red lands are 
not as prominent as farther north and west, and are associated with gray sandy 
soils from the granites and other rocks that occur to a large extent. The entire 
region covers an area of about 27,012 square miles, and embraces 25 organized 
counties, besides those that have as yet been only outlined and named. 

The surface of the eastern counties of the region is hilly or '* mountainous" 
and broken, and is well supplied with timber. These hills are usually long, high 
and narrow ridges or divides, generally not more than 100 feet high, with rather 
abrupt sides, are covered with a heavy growth of post and black-jack oaks, and 
have a sandy soil. Sometimes, as in the southern part of Brown County, the 
summit Is broad and comparatively level, with only a low and stunted oak growth. 
The valley lands between these hills are broad and open prairies, with red soils 
and occasional clumps of mesquite bushes, interspersed with motts of live oak. 
In the low flats, where limestone is often found outcropping, the soil is a dark 
stiff or waxy clay, very productive. 



TEXAS. 329 

The surface of the country m the western part of the region is little else than 
ah,g,> rolh.,g prairie, somewhat hilly on the north, but mrn-e and n.orc 1 veT^ 
the southwest, where with a gradual rise, it merges into the Great Plains or 
southern part of the Llano Estacado. The surfaee is covered with grass ad fre' 
quent chaparrals, and in localities with mesc,uite trees and motts of live oak 
Red sandstone is perhaps the most pr.miinent rock of the region (except on the 
south), and is found capping the great majority of the hills in ledges atclZken 
masses of s.jmetmies many feet thickness. Blue crystalline lin.estones (Pateozoic) 
also occur abundantly. ^ .'i«uiuic; 

„r. n^" ""',P'-"'"'-'«, ™<' i" tl-e valleys the greater part of the lands of the region 
are of a red loam character, more or less sandy and quite deep. In some of the 
low mesqu,te flats in Brown. San Saba, Stephens and oU.er counties on the east 

of ,r.T,/"'™' f' "f" "■■'^'' '""' "^ 8'°""" "f "™ «*k, while the sununits 
ot the hills are sandy and often covered with a low scrabby under^rrowtli The 
s rea„,s are usually bordered with a tiu.ber growth of elu,, pecan:c„ttonwoo,l, 
etc Ihe.r valleys on the west are very narrow, but widen eastward to some 
extent, and are covered with rich and productive soils from the red clay hills of 
the gypsum formation and bluffs of tlie Llano E.stacado. 

The yield of fresh lands is about 800 pounds of seed cotton per acre but 
durabd.ty can hardly be expected in these uplands without the application of 
phosphates after a few years. 

H,» 7'"',;'''=;°" >' "''"^t exclusively devoted to stock raising, for which purpose 
the excellent grasses are well adapted. The long droughts, and consequent lack 
of water m the streau,s and wells, is the chief evil to contend with in a 1 the 
vanous mterests in which the people are engaged; but with an increased popula- 
tion and a development of the resources of the country, this lack in water will 
in part, probably be overcome. ' 

WESTERN AND NORTHWESTERN TEXAS 

Tl)e country lying west and southwest of the northwestern red loam region 
and formmg the unpopulated portion of the State, is as yet con^paratL; 
unknown, especially so with regard to its agricultural features. It embraces 63 
counties (unorganized), which, though having a name, have virtually n.) inhabi- 

hand e of Texas The great extent of its territory, the lack of water and fuel on 
the plains, and the many other difficulties attending travel and explorations, make 
Its exammation a matter of much time and expense, as well as danger. At present 
we are lai-gely dependent upon the reports of the United States explorino- expedi- 
tions, made many years ago, for the little that is known regardino- tl.e ffreat 
western plains. ° , s^^ai 

Three important divisions are represented in this region, viz : The gypsum 
formation of the northwest and the plains, including the celebrated Llano Esta- 
cado or Staked Plain, the southern plain, and the mountainous region west of the 
Pecos, embracing in all 111,500 square miles, or 42.51 per cent, of the area of the 
btate. 1 he three divisions will be considered separately 

Gyvsum Region.-One of the most Interesting as well as valuable features of 
the western region is the great area of gypsum lands, covering in Texas, as far as 
can be de ermmed, about 17,500 square nules. Dr. George G. Shumard who 
explored th,s iv.ncm wiMi Captain P<.pe, reports that on Red River the gypsum 
beds are from a few inches to 30 feet thick. On Delaunre Creek a i.^v miles below 
Its source they are 60 feet, while between the Big AViehita and Brazos Rivers there 
are bills nearly 700 feet high composed almost entirely of this material. It occurs 
m Its many different forms of granular, massive, fibrous, and in large plates of 
transparent selenites. and is associated with heavy beds of red clays, and overlaid 



330 TEXAS. 

by sandstones and drift deposits. Tlie exact limits of tlie region have not as yet 
been determined. The best sources of information are United States Pacific 
Railroad Survey Reports. 

The Llano Extacado, or the Staked Plain. — The north^vesteru and the extreme 
western part of the State is part of what is known as the "Llano Estacado," or 
the " Staked Plain," the name being given to it from the tradition "that in 1734, 
when the fatliers from Santa Fe visited San Saba to establish a fort and a mission, 
they set up stakes witli buffalo heads on them, so that others might follow their 
route." Tlie name is usually given only to that portion lying east of the river 
Pecos, in both Texas and New Mexico, but the plains proper extend westward to 
the Rio Grande. From the northern limit of the State it reaches southward 
nearly to the 29th parallel, its eastern border lying along the 101st meridian, 
through five degrees of latitude; thence turns eastward to McCulloch County, 
and south to Bandera. Tlie area embraced in Texas is about 74,500 square miles, 
or about 28 per cent, of the entire area of the State. On the north the eastern 
limits of the plains tire strongly defined, and, aecording to Captain Marcy, are 
marked by vertical bluffs about 800 feet above the country or gypsum formation 
on the east. These bluffs consist of red and yellow clays overlaid by 10 or 35 feet 
of sandstone and a heavy deposit of drift pebbles, the whole capped by a sandy 
soil and subsoil. Southward, at the headwaters of the Colorado, the bluff's are not 
so high, a descent of only 50 feet being noted by Captain Marcy, and limestone 
(probably cretaceous) is found at its foot. This rock, as reported, seems to under- 
lie the entire plains south of the 32d parallel, and is almost absent in the Panhandle 
region, appearing only in thin seams in beds of sandstone. Throughout the rest 
of the border on the east and south the line marking the limit between the plains 
and the regions east can hardly be defined; the country is broken and hilly, with 
valleys, canons and isolated ridges, in which rotten limestone (cretaceous) occurs 
abundantly. 

The surface of the plains presents a vast and level prairie, " as smooth and 
firm as marble," apparently boundless. The soil is chiefly a brown loam, some- 
times sandy, and with no vegetation other than gamma and mesquite grasses and 
small mesquite shrubs, which appear a few inches above the surface and serve the 
purpose of a guide to the large roots below — the firewood of the plains. Alkali 
ponds or lakes occur frequently, especially in the southern half, and also a number 
of springs whose waters are suitable for use. Some gj^psum is said to occur 
around the edges (>f the lakes. The height of the eastern part of the plains was 
estimated by Captain Marcy to be 2,450 feet above the sea. Westward the 
country gradually rises 200 feet, and reaciies its maximum near the 103d degree 
of longitude. 

On this line, near tlie southwest corner of the Panhandle, there is a range of 
sand hills rising from 20 to 100 feet above the plaiii, occupying a region 50 miles 
long (north and south) and about 15 miles wide. The hills are conical in shape 
and utterly destitute of vegetation, and the section, because of the deep beds of 
sand, is hardly passable with M'agons. 

From this point westward the country falls some 200 feet to the Pecos, whose 
banks are without timber growth. A person may come very near to the edge of 
the gorge without becoming aware of its presence. From the river still westward 
to the foot of the Guadalupe Mountains the country rises 200 feet, and thence to 
the Rio Grande, at El Pnso, agnin gradually falls. 

The Moinitainoiift Begiort. — Westward from tlie Pecos River to the Rio Grande 
the broavl undulating plains continue, not continuously as on the east, but inter- 
rupted by several high and broken ranges of mountains rising suddenly several 
thousand feet above the general surface. The plains, having widths of 20 or 30 



TEXAS. 331 

miles between these mountains, are covered largely witli mesquite bushes, cactus 
and thorny chaparrals, and are interspersed witli large salty depressions. Gamma 
grass occurs in localities, sometimes plentifully; but water suitable to drink is 
very scarce. The soil is usually very sandy and often covered with incrustations 
of salt. The area comprised in this region is about 19,5C0 square miles. 

The Sierra Blanco Mountains on the south, near the Rio Grande, is near the 
point of union of the Southern Pacific and Texas Pacific Railroads, and is said to 
be the highest point in the State, the plains themselves being about 4,500 feet 
above the sea. 

ALLUVIAL OR RIVER LANDS. 

The river lands form an important division in the agricultural features of the 
State, more from their richness and consequent high productiveness than from 
the area comprised by them. They are all but lightly timbered on the west of the 
central black prairie region, but tlience to the coast the timber growth becomes 
larger, more dense and of greater variety. The bottom lands also widen out 
toward the coast. The most important of the rivers described are the Red and 
tlie Brazos, and with the latter are tlie smaller streams. Oyster and Caney Creeks, 
which are included in the region of its " sugar-bowl " or delta lands. These are 
looked upon as representing the highest type of fertility, and but for the malarial 
character of the densely timbered portions, would be mostly under cultivation 
and more highly valued. The lands of the rivers are considered separately. 

Red Rimr Lands.— Red River forms in part the boundary between Texas and 
the Indian Territory. Its course is eastward, for the most part across the head of 
the other large rivers of the State, until it passes into Louisiana. 

In the black prairie region the valley of the river is veiy narrow, the high 
limestor.e blulTs often approaching near the water's edge. In Cooke County these 
bluffs are 275 feet high, and are formed of the rotten limestone (cretaceous) of the 
central prairie region. On the north side of the river, in the Indian Territory, 
the river lands are broader and are partly under cultivation by whites ; but to the 
west, on either side of the river, scarcely any cultivated lands are found. From 
the *' lower cross tunbers," in the eastern part of Cooke County, eastward to the 
Louisiana line, the bottom lands increase in width and are among the richest in 
the State. They are heavily timbered with cottonwood, pecan, walnut, black oak, 
hackberry, mulberry and white hickorj^, and have a dense undergrowth of cane.' 
Besides the low sandy overflow ed lands, there are two general classes com- 
prising the bottoms and occupying terraces above each other, viz: First bottom 
of red sandy or clayey land, and second bottom of dark or black loam lying about 
10 feet above the first and at the foot of the bluff or uplands. These two bottoms 
are peculiar only to those Texan rivers whose sources are in the region of the 
Llano Estacado on the northwest, viz : Colorado, Brazos and Red Rivers, as well 
as the Canadian, North Fork and Arkansas Rivers of the Indian Territory. The 
sod characters mentioned by Michler continue down the river, the red sands and 
clays of the first bottom being derived from the red sandstones and red lands of 
the norihwest region. This first bottom soil is of two varieties— a deep red sandy 
loam overlying a red clay subsoil, and a red waxy clay with a subsoil of the samV 
character. Both are highly productive and subject to occasional overflow, being 
from 10 to 20 feet above low water. This red land terrace is at first rather narrow, 
but becomes wider toward the eastern boundary of the State. 

The black loam terrace, about 10 feet above the first, is known as the second 
bottom, and is very level. Its soil is of a light and loose nature, rather siltv, and 
darkened by the long accumulation of decayed vegetation. At the foot of the 
limestone bluff in Grayson County it is stiff and rather waxy, but this is a local 
feature only. The entire bottom of the river is from one to\wo miles in width. 



332 TEXAS. 

and, lliough comprising some of the finest lands of the State, a large proportion 
is still covered with its original timber growth. Cotton is one of the chief crops, 
growing from four to six feet in heiglit, and yielding, under proper management, 
a bale of 500 pounds of lint i)er acre, even after many years' cultivation. 

Sabine Rirer Lamh.—TXia bottom lands of Sabine River, from its lieadwaters 
as far east as Cass County, are of a dark and heavy waxy nature, quite wide and 
well tiinl)ered, but subject to overflow, and are not under cultivation. Thence to 
its moutli this waxy feature is destroyed by the intermixture of sand, a dark sandy 
loam covering the wide undulating bottoms, which are liore above overflow, and 
are timbered with post oak and short-leaf i)ine. Cotton is largely planted on 
these lands (except in the extreme southern counties), grows to a height of from 
live to seven feet, and yields, it is claimed, 1,500 pounds of seed cotton per acre. 
Trinity River Lands. — The extreme headwaters of the Trinity River are in 
Jack County, but a short distance west of the central black prairie region. The 
lands of the river bottoms are therefore derived chiefly from the sandy uplands 
adjoining the streams, and are of a dark loamy or silty character until near the 
eastern limit of the black prairies, from which point southward there is a thick 
deposit of black waxy clay qver the silt. The bottoms of the upper division of 
the river are well timbered with oak, elm, pecan, black walnut, bois d'arc (known 
also as Osage orange), honey locust, hackberry and cottonwood. 

The lands are rich, but are not very generally under, cultivation, being more 
or less subject to overflow. They are said to produce in ordinary seasons 1,000 
pounds of seed cotton per acre. 

In this part of the State there are broad prairie valley lands on either side of 
the Trinity bottom several miles in width, bounded by the high blutfs of rotten 
limestone. At the foot of the ridges the soil is usually stiff and waxy, but 
becomes more and more sandy toward the river, with heavy beds of sand in some 
places. The valley lies beautifully for agricultural purposes, is gently undulating, 
and is apparently easy of cultivation. A growth of mes(iuite occurs occasionally 
on the prairie. Very little of the valley is in actual cultivation. 

The bottoms of the middle and southern portions of the river have widths 
varying from one to five miles, and are heavily timbered with red, burr and pin 
oaks, pecan, ash and cottonwood, with cjqiress on the south. 

The lands immediately adjoining the river are light and silty in character, 
but further back they are a heavy and waxy black clay several feet in depth, and 
are underlaid usually by sand. They are very difficult to till in wet weather, and 
produce excellent crops of corn, cotton and sugar-cane. Cotton grows six or 
eight feet high, and, it is claimed, produces from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds of seed 
cotton per acre. 

Brazos River Lands. — The lands of the Brazos River are considered the best 
and most valuable in the State, and are the most extensive of the river lands. 
The source of the river is at the foot of the Llano Estacado, and for a distance of 
300 or 400 miles the river cuts its way among the gyi)sum beds, sandstones and 
limestones of the nortlnvestern region, carrying down with its waters the red 
sands and clays which go to form the first bottom lands along its entire course to 
the coast. 

The bottom lands, before the river enters the black prairie region, are rather 
narrow, the bluff's often coming to the bank of the stream. They are not gener- 
ally heavily timbered, mesciuite trees being the prevailing growth in many places. 
The soil is a red sandy loam, except near the gyi)sum beds, where it is said to be 
whitish in color. The water of the river in this northwest region is somewhat 
salty, and salt incrustations are frequently found on some of the rocks in the 
streams. 



TEXAS. 33S 

The bottom lands of the river, after leaving this region, may, for description, 
be conveniently divided into two sections — the first extending to Richmond, in 
Fort Beud County ; the second thence to the coast, and known as " the sugar- 
bowl." 

The bottoms of the first division have a width of from one-half to two miles, 
and are covered with a heavy timber growth of cottonwood, poplar, black walnut, 
pecan and elm, and a dense undergrowth of cane, etc. The soil of tlie first bottom 
is a red alluvial loam, quite deep, overlying a red clay. At 30 feet a bed of " white 
and round quartz pebbles " occurs. That of the second bottom is usually a dark 
sandy loam. 

In some of the counties the red lands of the first bottom are most prominent 
and extensive, but both seem to be equally productive, and are considered the 
best cotton lands of the State. A large proportion of these bottoms is under cul- 
tivation, but their unhealthfulness hinders their settlement. Cotton grows to a 
height of from six to eight feet, yielding about a bale of lint or 1,500 pounds of 
seed cotton per acre. Corn also is very productive, yielding, it is claimed, as 
much as 40 or 60 bushels per acre. 

Brazos Delta, or " tlie Sngar-bowV — The lower division of these alluvial lands 
is the sugar-producing region of the State. It covers an area of about OCO square 
miles, and embraces, besides the lands of the Brazos, those of Oyster and San 
Bernard Creeks on either side. 

The region is perfectly level, heavily timbered, has a dense undergrowth, and 
lies from 20 to 30 feet above the common w ater-level of the river. 

The soils of the region present three diff"erent varieties, viz: The red alluvial 
loam, immediately adjoining the river and the two creeks ; ash and elm flats lying 
next to this ; and finally, the black wild peach lauds. 

The red loam lands are considered the best, because of their excellent drain- 
age, easy tillage and great fertility. They occur in belts from one-half to a mile 
in width, or in bodies containing from 100 to 1,000 acres each. They have a depth 
of about 30 feet, the color of the soil changing somewhat at 18 inches. 

Canebrakes cover the land, the timber growth being cottonwood, ash, elm, 
pecan, sycamore, hackberry, and a variety of oaks. Cotton grows to a height of 
from five to ten feet, and yields about 2,000 pounds of seed cotton per acre, both 
when fresh and after 50 years' cultivation. 

The ash and elm lands have a stiff black soil, and are 18 inches deep, with a 
dark subsoil not so stiff; The timber growth is principally elm and ash. The 
lands are flat and poorly drained, and do not seem to be much under cultivation, 
though producing, it is claimed, as much as 1,500 pounds of seed cotton per acre. 

The black peach lands, while black in color, are sandy in character, and occur 
interspersed in small areas. They have a soil 18 inches in depth and a lighter 
subsoil, and are easily tilled and best adapted to sugar-cane. They have a growth 
of wild peach, pecan, live oak and hackberry, and are in part prairie. Cotton 
grows very high on these lands, and it is claimed will produce as much as 2,500 
pounds of seed cotton per acre. 

Sugar is the chief production of the sugar-bowl region, the 3ield upon 5,340 
acres for the year 1879, according to the census returns, being 4,443 hogslieads, 
with 355,573 gallons of molasses. The average yield per acre was eight-tenths of 
one hogshead of sugar and 6(5.5 gallons of molasses. 

Colorado Rker Lands. — The sources of the Colorado and of its western tribu- 
tary, the Concho, are among the western hills and broad plains and table-lands of 
the Llano Estacado. For a distance of several hundred miles its waters flow 
among the sandstones and limestones of the western region with an easterly 



334 TEXAS. 

course to the black prairie region, then turn southward along its border to the 
lower edge of Burnet County, and thence east-southeast to the coast. 

The bottom lands of the river, from its source to the black prairie region, are 
narrow, with many and frequent high bluffs near the stream. 

On entering the more level lands of the prairies the bottom lands become 
wider, and thence to the coast have widths varying from one- half to a mile or 
more. This includes the valley or second bottom lands, the first, or bottoms 
proper, being narrow and more or less subject to overflow in high-water seasons. 
The bottoms have a large timber growth of white and pin oaks, elm, ash, cotton- 
wook, sycamore, pecan and hackberry, with usually a dense undergrowth of cane, 
etc. The lands are for the most part a reddish loam or silt several feet in depth, 
underlaid by clay. Near the uplands on either side the lands are darker, and in 
the black prairie region stifl'er and more clayey in character. South of Columbus, 
in Colorado County, they resemble the lands of the sugar-bowl or Brazos allu- 
Tium, and properly belong to it. Cotton is the chief crop on the bottom lands of 
the river, the stalk growing from five to seven feet high, and yielding from 1,500 
to 2,000 pounds of seed cotton per acre. 

San Saba Rwer Lands. — The lands of the San Saba River, a tributary of the 
Colorado, comprise narrow and timbered bottoms along the banks of the stream — 
mesquite valleys, with both red gravelly soils and black loamy and clayey soils, 
reaching back to the hills. These valleys afford the chief farming lands of that 
section. 

Guadalupe Rimr Lands. — The bottom lands of the Guadalupe River are not 
very extensive or wide, and have a timber growth of cottonwood, pecan, ash, 
oaks, nmlberry and hackberry, with a variety of undergrowth. The soil is mostly 
a sandy loam from 10 to 15 inches deep; the subsoil a yellow clay, sometimes 
jointed in character. The valley lands are in some places broad and open, with a 
mesquite growth and a dark calcareous soil. Cotton grows from five to seven 
feet high, and yields about 1,500 pounds of seed cotton per acre. 

San Antonio River Lands. — The bottom lands of the San Antonio River are 
narrow and unimportant. Its valleys have in some counties a width of one and 
a-half miles and a growth (in Wilson County) of elm, hackberry, pecan, ash and 
mesquite. In the counties near the coast the river fiows between high banks of 
white clay-stone, or adobe, along which there is usually a growth of pecan trees 
and mesquite. 

Nueces Ewer Lands. — The Nueces River is mainly confined to the thinly 
inhabited southwestern section of the State. In San Patricio County its bottoms 
have a growth of live oak, cottonwood, ash, elm, hackberry and willow, and a 
l)la('k alluvial soil. Its valley lands seem to be preferred. They have a growth of 
mesquite and " wesatche," and a light sandy soil, which is easily tilled. 

Rio Grande River Lands. — The bottom and valley lands of the Rio Grande 
River, from its headwaters southward to Edinburg, Hidalgo County, are narrow, 
and, so far as known, are unimportant, the hills of the uplands coming to the* 
river banks very often. From Edinburg to the mouth of the river these lands 
widen out rapidly, and embrace those of the Sal Colorado, which stream is said to 
be but an outlet of the Rio Grande in high water, and runs off almost at right 
angles to it. 

The valley from Brownsville northward has a width of 50 miles. 

The soil of the Rio Grande valle}' contains an extraordinary percentage of 
potash, a large amount of phosphoric acid and a very large amount of carbonate 
of lime. The percentage of humus is also great, and the soil has a large retentive 
-power for moisture. Altogether, this soil, which is easily tilled, seems to be 
nearer what may be thought to be a " perfect soil " than any other in the State. 



TEXAS. 835 

PRODUCTIONS. 

Cotton.— Texas now stands at the head of the cotton-growing States, having 
produced in 1883 1,326,000 bales, against 1,064,000 bales raised in Mississippi, the 
next highest State. 

Corn is the next most important crop in Texas. In 1879 that crop occupied 
2,468,587 acres, or 32 per cent, of the lands under cultivation, and exceeding the 
area of cotton by 130,017 acres. In 1884 the acreage of corn was 3,752,700 and 
the number of bushels raised 60,290,000. The lands of Western Texas seem 
specially adapted to the growth of corn, and under a proper system of cultivation 
the ju-esent average yield per acre could probably be more than doubled. 

AVheat. — Texas is destined, for many reasons, to play a great role as a wheat- 
growing State. Her area is large, her soil fertile, the product earlier, the quantity 
good, and raised in a climate that will enable her flour to defy Western competi- 
tion in future markets of large consumption. An Ohio paper says on this point: 

" That West Texas will be an important wheat and other grain-producing 
district we feel assured by two facts : The adaptability of its soil and the growing 
demand. The profitableness of wheat growing in Texas is evidenced by several 
considerations. The price of wheat in Europe in some measure fixes the price in 
New York, and the price there determines the price in Chicago, St. Louis and 
other Western centers. From any railroad point in Texas the farmer can ship his 
wheat to New Orleans or Galveston for five or ten cents less per bushel tlian he 
can send it from Iowa or Illinois to New York, and when at New Orleans or 
Galveston the rate per ton is as cheap as from New York or Baltimore to Liver- 
pool, thus giving the Texas wheat raiser an advantage of five to ten cents i)er 
bushel on the price of his wheat over the States now regarded as the great wheat- 
producing districts. Then the wonderful immigration creates a local demand for 
wheat that sustains a good price. It is just that we state that the rainfall is 
incn^asing annuall3% and this question of irrigation may be regarded as a very 
temporary one." 

The acreage in wheat, according to the last census, was 373,570, and the yield 
2,567,760 bushels. In 1884 the acreage was 556,600, and 5,o()0,600 bushels, were 
raised. 

The fact that the product per acre of cereals is lower in Texas than in 
Western or Northern States is not because Texas is less fertile than they, or less 
adapted to these cereals; it is the fault of the prevailing system of farming. As 
a recent writer has said: 

"The farmers of Texas are too prodigal of the broad acres of rich soil they 
possess. They lay out larms of unreasonable width; skim over them with imple- 
ments that are not suited to thorough cultivation ; scatter seed without order and 
cultivate without system ; so that, with few exceptions, the farms are overgrown 
with weeds and grass that, of course, greatly impair the growth of crops, to say 
nothing of the want of deep plowing and thorough tillage. Put this soil, with 
its extraordinary adaptation to the growth of such a great variety of crops, and 
tliis cliniate. so congenial to the growth of all kinds of stock, into the hands of 
New England or Pennsylvania farmers, Avho would at once subdue and eradicate 
all vegetation but the crops that are planted ; who would plow deep and thor- 
oughly pulverize the soil, and such crops would be raised as are not to be found 
in countries where millions are annually exi)ended for commercial fertilizers. 

" The wheat fields of Texas are replacing those which are being exhausted in 
the North, and the steady movement towards the region where it can be the most 
cheaply produced, and to a perfection, because of the long and uniform seasons, is 
daily increasing." 



336 TEXAS. 

Oats. — The significance of tlie growth in tlie production of oats will not be 
understood unless it be remembered that this cereal is largely displacing corn as a 
food for stock, thus leaving the latter to enter the market more as a money pro- 
ducer — an article for sale rather than consumption on the farm. Again, the 
expansion in the production in hay and the increasing area given to the cultivated 
grasses are factors for which due appreciation is hard to elicit, and about which 
we cannot get satisfiictory statistics. 

Oats are worth from 50 to 75 cents per bushel. The red rust-proof is tlie 
common one — very superior in every respect. From 80 to 100 or more bushels 
per acre are raised, varying with soil, season, culture, etc. 

The area cultivated in oats, as shown by the census of 1880, was 238,010 
acres, and the yield 4,893,359 bushels. In 1884 this had grown to 478,510 acres 
and 10,527,000 bushels. 

Barley and rye are raised to some extent. 

Sugar Culture. — The sugar belt proper of Texas embraces the counties of 
Brazoria and Matagorda, both bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, and Fort Bend 
and Wharton Counties, lying immediately north. These counties contain not less 
than 2,000,000 acres of choice alluvial cane lands, with an abundance of timber 
for fuel to use in sugar manufacturing purposes. 

In the last census Texas was credited with 4,951 hogsheads of sugar and 
810,605 gallons of molasses. Of this, Brazoria County produced of the former 
2,440 hogsheads; of the latter 175,530 gallons. As sugar-cane is not "a principal 
crop," according to the United States Department of Agriculture, nothing is 
found for 1884. Of course, the product has increased. 

Rice is another product not a "principal crop" either; so no figures can be 
given as to it since 1880. The total crop then was 62,152 pounds for the census 
year. There can be no good reason why much of the Texas coast region will not 
prove a superb rice area ; and, indeed, a very large area elsewhere will certainly 
produce fine upland rice. 

Tobacco. — In the Agricultural Report for 1884 no statement is made of the 
tobacco crop of Texas. This does not mean that the State does not or cannot 
raise tobacco — only that it is not an article of commerce. It is raised only in a 
small way and for family use. The soils and climates of many of tlie counties of 
the State are adapted for tobacco, and the wonder is more is not raised, especially 
considering that there is so much fresh soil in the State. The crop for the census 
year Mas 221,283 pounds. 

FRUIT CULTURE. 

Under this head I quote the following: 

"In that portion of Texas lying within 50 miles of the Gulf of Mexico, 
known as the coast region, tropical and semi-tropical fruits may be grown. 
There are occasional years when, even at Galveston, damage is done by frost, but 
a very little protection will suffice to carry trees through. Upon the northern 
edge of this coast belt the orange is longer in coming to bearing, but after it has 
reached this ripe age, say eight to ten years, it will stand the coldest weather. 
The 25th and 20th of December, 1879, are among the coldest days known to the 
oldest inhabitants of Houston, and certainly the severest in the suddenness of the 
changes; yet but few orange trees were killed. Bananas that had been stripped 
of leaves and covered with a sack of Canton flannel or cotton cloth, came out at 
the top with the first days of spring, and were bearing by the first of June. 
Immediately upon the coast the grape bears as luxuriantly, but is not as long 
lived as further north. The White and Golden Chasseles and Hamburg come to 
perfection in the open air. The native varieties which are common to all Southern 
Texas bear abundantly. Strawberries thrive well, especially upon the bays near 



TEXAS. 337 

the coast. Peaches of very early bearing kinds are grown upon the shell lands, 
but have not proven reliable fruit, even within 50 miles of the coast. The native 
plum never fails. The pomegranate thrives and bears well. Almonds and dates 
arc in good state of growth. There is one date tree in Houst(m now bearing. In 
all that portion of Texas lying south of 30° north latitude the tropical fruits are 
possible if protected during the cold months, but it is only south of the latitude 
of Houston that they can be grown with profit. 

"In the whole region south of the parallel of 30° 30', lying between the 
Trinity and San Antonio Rivers, except south of the latitude of Houston, all 
fruits conunon to the temperate zone do well, except apples, cherries, gooseberries 
and currants. Apples are grown, but mainly summer varieties. 

" Central and Northern Texas, embracing the region lying between the par- 
allels of 30° 30' and 34° north latitude, and between the eastern border and Colo- 
rado River, is as fine a fruit region as the sun shines upon." 

GRASSES. 

The following on "Grasses and Forage Plants" of Texas is part of a paper 
read before the Southern Immigration Association at its annual meeting in March, 
188.5, and is from the pen of J F. Joor, M. D., of Texas, an eminent scTentist: 

" In this line the Texas State exhibit far surpasses that of any other one State, 
altliough the collection is very incomplete, there being only 30 or 40 specimens 
from the vast region west of the Colorado River. We have on exhibit 218 species 
and named varieties of graminm, 76 of cyheraceal and six of forage plants. The 
most important of these are : 

" Texas millet {Panicvm Texanunx), of which we have a bundle 6 feet 3 inches 
high; goose grass {P. platyhyllum) ; crab grass {P. sanguinale), 6 feet 10 inches 
long; barn-yard grass (P. Crus-galli\ 7 feet 2 inches; Milo grass {Paspalum com- 
pressum); Bermuda {Cynodon Dactylon), 6 feet; Johnson grass {Sorghum Ilala- 
pense), 8 feet 2 inches; marsh grass {Sixirtina rolystachya), 11 feet; reed grass 
{PhragmUes Communis), 17 feet 4 inches; red clover {Tnfolzum pratense), 38 inches; 
iimi\rii{Medicago8atim),dO inches; J ixpan cloxer (Lespedeza striata). 

"Texas blue-grass undoubtedly affords the best winter and spring pasturage, 
remaining fresh and green throughout the cold season. Accounts differ as to Us 
endurance of the summer sun. Some assert that it dies down in hot dry weather, 
while others claim that it does not even wilt when nearly everything else is in a 
dying condition from drouth; and one farmer affirms (I quote his exact words): 
♦Af^er hard trying 40 years, this is the first and only grass I ever had that I would 
recomme'nd as a winter grass that (does) not die out in sunmier.' I myself liave 
seen very little of it. 

"Red and white clover do well on tlie clay soils of Southern Texas, and 
afford fine gnizing in late winter and spring, but die down in sunmier.* They do 
not succeed well on sandy lands. 

"Japan clover is naturalized in Eastern Texas. Mr. Winstead says that it 
♦will propagate on rich or poor uncultivated land, stands drouth well, bears con- 
tinuous grazing without injury, spreads rapidly, and, when it may be desirable to 
cultivate the land, is easily gotten .rid of.' My own somewhat limited observations 
go to confirm these statements. 

"For summer giowth m drouthy regions the best grasses undoubtedly are 
Bernuida, Johnson and Milo. Tlie two first named are liable to the serious Objec- 
tion that, when once established, it is nearly or quite impossible to get rid of 
them.t This does not apply to the ]\[ilo grass. This resembles Bermuda in its 

''A common matter in most of the South —M B H 
r.fJYf""^ ""*"'■" -^ ^''^ '■''^ ""{ Eermuda.^ow "the seed of Lespedeza j^rm^«-Japa.i clover-and 
erldicated!!^^^."^^ '"° "' '^"''" '''^''- '^^' ^"'^ ^^''^ ^^ incredibly enriched<^and the BermuSa 



338 TEXAty. 

running habit, but lias a much wider leaf. It is scattered pretty well through 
Southeastern Texas, though very few farmers or stockmen seeju to have noticed 
it, and I do not know of any one who can supply seed or roots. 

" Joljnson grass yields an immense amount of hay, but unless cut very young 
it is coarse. It may be cut five or six tinies a year. 

"The best pasture for the whole year that I hnve seen was clover sown (in 
the fall) on broken up Bermuda sod. The clover remained green p^'etty nmch all 
winter and spring, and'by the time it died down the 15ermuda was ready to take 
its place, lasting till the clover si)rang up again. (In the article on Mississippi 
much can be found of the way these two grasses supi)lement ea(;h other. — M. B. H.) 
Clover and Texas millet, crab grass and Texas blue-grass, and Japan clover, are 
combinations worth trying for this purpose. 

"On the gulf coast the inunense thickets of rank marsh and reed grasses 
(Spartina and Phraginites), afford fine pasturage the year round. They are very 
coarse, but our Texas cattle relish them and thrive on them. 

"The most abundant prairie grasses in Eastern Texas are the species of 
Andropogon, Muhlenbergia, Setaria and (in poor soils) Aristida. Further west 
Beucldoe and Boutelona are frequent. In the wooded districts the numerous 
species of Panicum constitute a large percentage of the grasses." 

The following extracts are from the United States Agricultural Re[)orts: 

" For a i)ermanent pasture glass the Texas blue-grass {Poa arachnifera) 
promises to be one of the very best grasses yet brought to the attention of the 
South. It is a strong, deep-rooted grass, with an abundance of foliage, and 
seems to possess all of the characteristi(;s necessary for a grass to be successful 
in most i>arts of the South. It grows in woods or open prairie, and thrives upon 
a variety of soils, poor as well as rich, but has not, so far as reported, been tried 
upon a dry, sandy soil. This grass seems worthy of earnest consideration by all 
interested." 

"I call it Texas blue-grass, and if it were possible to patent it, I would not 
give it for all the mineral wealth of Texas. I find it is spreading rai)idly over the 
country, and I claim for it all and more in Texas than is awarded to the Poa 
pratensis in Kentucky. It seems to be indigenous to all the prairie country 
between the Trinity River and the Brazos in our State. It blooms here about tlie 
last of March and ripens its seeds by the 15tli of April. Stock of all kinds, and 
even poultry, seem to prefer it to wheat, rye, or anythijig else grown in th.e winter. 
It seems to have all the characteristics of the Poa pndenm, only it is much larger, 
and thei'efor(; affords more grazing. I have known it to grow 10 indues in 10 days 
during the winter. The coldest winters do not even nip it, and although it seems 
to die down during summer, it si^rings up as soon as the first rains fall in Septem- 
ber and grows all winter. I have known it n\ cultivation some five 3'ears and 
have never been able to find a fault in it. It Avill be ready for pasture in three or 
four weeks after the first rains in the latter i)art of August or first of September. 
I have nevei cut it for hay. AVhy should a man want hay when he can have green 
grass to feed on V With a pasture well set in this grass )'ou cannot run after your 
cows fast enough to get them to eat hay in our coldest weather. Very few of our 
limners are paying any attention to grass, but most of them are raising cotton to 
the exclusion of corn, wheat, oats, &c., and I am convinced it will take some very 
severe lessons in experience to teach them that grass is tlie main stake in agricul- 
ture, either as hay or pasture." 

STOCK KxVISING. 

Cattle. — A rapid revolution is taking jdace in cattle raising in the State of 
Texas. There are many aspects in this change. One feature obtaining more and 



TEXAS 339 

more is the grading up of cattle. This is becoming quite common. Large 
numbers of tlioroughbred Short Horn and Hereford bulls have been introduced 
within the last few years. Their value is up in the millions of dollars. The 
Hereford is preferred as being a better " rustler."* 

The narrowing of the range by fencing and tiie encroachments of population 
are other great changes in the cattle business. 

Tlie "drive" will most probably be a thing of the past in a few 3'ears. The 
trouble on the trail, quarantine and other matters will soon end the "drive" busi- 
ness. The Texas i)eople will soon learn the folly of sending their young cattle to 
Kansas. Colorado, S:c., to be fed on corn, and to permit the farmers of the latter 
States to make the bulk of the money. They will keep at home their steers, and 
fatten tliem on home-raised corn, hay, and wild and cultivated grasses. 

What seems to the writer one of the most significant fiictors in the swiftly 
changing aspects of the Texas cattle business is the comparativel}^ new movement 
of sending cattle from Texas by rail to St. Louis, Chicago and Kansas City (lately 
to some extent) via New Orleans. A cheap through rate is made; the cattle are 
fed and watered at proper times, and reach market in far better condition than by 
the "drive." I say that the movement is very portentous, and is believed to be 
the beginning of a rcAolution. 

First, it will strike a great blow^ at Kansas as the cattle fattener of Texas, 
thus depriving the former State of a large source of revenue, and a large and 
profitable way in which to dispose of her cheap corn and hay. 

Next, it will bring into competition with Kansas States nearer the great 
markets for fat steers. Cattle dealers will repair to St. Louis and Chicago to buy 
these young steers to raise and fatten. Tliey will hire the blue-grass pastures of 
Missouri, Illinois and other States upon which to fatten and raise them As they 
can buy them so much more cheaply than they can similar animals at home, they 
will soon compete, in a lively manner, for them, and enhance their value. 

The farmers of these States will enter the market, too, to huj and fatten, and 
will diminisli the supply, ;^>ro Unito, of these cattle, which Avould else have come 
from Kansas fat. 

And the demand Avill enlarge. Cattle dealers from Ohio and Indiana will be 
in the field. These cattle will move farther east. The owners of blue-grass pas- 
tures in these last two States w ill enter the market to buy these Texas cattle. 

Bye and bye, cattle dealers and the owners of broad acres of clover and blue- 
grass in the States of Missouri, Illinois, Indiana and Ohio, will repair to Texas to 
buy these cattle on the soil of Texas, and their competition will enhance the 
prices of cattle greatly in the last State; and as the best cattle will be most 
sought after by these purchasers from these States, great improvement in cattle 
will be more rapidly promoted, until, in a few years, a genuine Texas steer will be 
a curiosity and found only in museums. 

The Texas cattle raisers, seeing the point, will, more and more, " ripen " their 
own steers — high grades — at home, on their own cheap lands, with home-raised 
corn, home-made hay, and broad acres of one and another of the cultivated 
grasses, to send by cheap rate to Chicago, St. Louis, Indianapolis, Cincinnati and 
other markets. 

Very soon these Texas cattle raisers will be invading the European markets 
with their cattle, for there are Galveston and New Orleans right at their doors, 
and no long railroad trips, as to New York and Boston, from the tar West. And 
then will come the era of dressed beef for Europe in refrigerators from these 



*The Hereford has an aptitude, too, to fatten on grass without other food; has great hardihood, 
activity and self-reliance in time of need. I do not undertake to say that he will surpass the Short 
Horn where both are largely corn fed; his superiority is on the "range." 



340 TEXAS. 

ports of Galveston and New Orleans for these "ripened" Texas-raised cattle. 
And this will make possihle another great epoch— beef canning in Texas. The 
best beef being sent to Europe in refrigerators, the other portions can be canned 
in Texas. . How can a beef canner in Kansas City, St. Louis or Chicago compete 
with one in Texas who buys the cheaper steers of Texas, when the latter is so 
near to-the ocean with his refrigerated beef? Need one figure on higher cost of 
buildings in these cities as compared with Texas; of lower price of cattle in 
Texas with their lower price of land;* milder climate; proximity to Bea? 

Indeed, it is difficult to see why, when Texas shall raise her high grades; 
raise her corn and cultivated grasses to " ripen" them, she cannot send her choice 
parts of these steers in refrigerated cars to St. Louis, Chicago, etc., and can her 
inferior parts of the animals on the soil of Texas.f 

I have spoken theoretically of the tendency and effects of the shipping of 
cattle to St. Louis and Chicago. It has become quite a business for Western cattle- 
men to repair to Texas and buy for the drive, and something considerable has 
been done in shipping; and, as has been said, as the " drive" seems doomed, ship- 
ping will be the only way out, except canning and refrigeration become partners. 
It may be that Kansas, Colorado and other States will see the detriment, and 
quarantine be lifted; but I think the revolution is inaugurated. 

These " drives " are affairs of magnitude. Last year, for one of 45,000 head 
into Colorado, a force of 40 men and 400 horses was required. The journey takes 
from 60 to 90 days. 

In Caldwell, Kansas, last year, "through" Texas cattle sold as follows: For 
good straight steers, $16 for "ones," $20 for "twos" and $26 for "threes," and 
upwards. Prices in Texas this year were very low and the stockmen discouraged 
by quarantine, but^ are now better. Good yearlings could be had on the ranch at 
$8 ; in instances, in bunches of 50 and 75, they could be had at $6 to $7 each. A 
sale of 2,500 3-year olds and up was made to a party from Kansas City, Missouri, 
at $22 each, to be delivered at Wichita Falls. Another sale was made, delivered 
near Lockhart, of " ones " and " twos" at $8 and $11. At Sherman, a sale of 2,000 
"threes" and "fours," one-half each, was effected at $20. At San Antonio, fat 
" two," in car-load lots, were selling at $10. They were shipped to New Orleans. 
At Victoria, 1,000 head of fat cows and 100 beeves were purchased and sent to 
Chicago, the prices being $16 for former and $20 for latter. 

The fluctuations in prices for the past few years, the quarantine, the trail 
troubles, should teach the Texas stockmen, and will, to grade up more and more, 
get in cultivated grasses, and ripen their own cattle. 

The cattle business in Texas is scattered over the vast prairies of the Pan- 
handle, in the prairies of the coast counties, and in the valleys of the Rio Grande, 
the Conchos and the Pecos Rivers. A few years ago the cattle ranges almost 
covered the State, but the influx of population has pushed the business westward 
into the less populated portion. The fencing furore is a r(;cent affair, and at one 
time threatened to be a very serious matter, but is now, hai)pily, about settled. 

In stating that the cattle business is scattered over the prairies of Western 
Texas, this is said only by way of eminence It is quite certain that Texas con- 
tains a very respectable number of herds of thoroughbred registered cattle that 



*It is a well-known fact that grazing OTily pays a low rate of interest on the investment in high- 
priced lands in many of the States North, and yet it is considered one of the best uses to which to put 
these lands. 

t" It is estimated that during the year 1884 about 300,000 cattle were driven from Texas to Northern 
ranges, to be there matured for marketing, and that about 625,000 beef cattle were shipped from Texas 
to the markets of Kansas City, St. Louis, Chicago and New Orleans." — Joseph Nimmo, Jr. Of these, 
many were slaughtered for canning in the former-named cities. The reason why Texas can't kill and 
can profitably in competition is because she has no large demand for the best part of the beef at high 
prices, as have Chicago and the otherd. Were she to refrigerate her best beef, however, this difficuhy 
would be measurably obviated. 



TEXAS. 341 

are disseminated through the more populous parts, and receive a treatment the 
very reverse of the rovers of the range. It would be hazardous to give a conjec- 
ture as to the relative standing in point of numbers of these thoroughbred herds 
in Texas. It is quite certain that there is large room for thoroughbred herds of 
Herefords and Short Horns for grading up the Texas natives for beef, and for 
Jerseys, Holsteins and Ayrshires for butter and cheese. Nor do I mean to offer a 
sligiit to the polled Angus and the Galloway.* It seems to the writer that there 
must be a great chance for the crosses of these breeds with native stock, more 
particularl}^ as the cultivated grasses come in and the necessity for " rustlers " 
diminishes; and it would seem that there must be an opening to originate distinct 
breeds by crosses of these last two with tlie natives — breeding out the horns of 
the last, and embodying their hardiness and aptitude to fatten on grass, and incor- 
porating the "chunkiness" and beef quality of tlie Angus and Galloways. 

Undoubtedly, dairying is yet to be a very considerable and lucrative industry 
in Texas. It is quite a reproach to a State in which cattle raising is such a pro- 
digious vocation that in many places a glass of milk is a curiosity and good butter 
unattainable. However, the lai-geness of the opportunity will offer such incen- 
tives to embarking in the industrv, that it will soon be considerable. 

Perhaps it would be seriously misleading not to mention that one great reason 
why the raising of thoroughlu'ed cattle in Texas offers such opportunities for 
lucrativeness is in the fact that such cattle, unless acclimated, incur awful deci- 
mation. Acclimated thoroughbreds of the beef breeds are near the great market 
of demand, affording two greatest advantages — largeness of demand and incon- 
siderable cost of transportation; and there is this novel feature — that for a long 
time to come increased supph" Avill create increased deman'l, for the reason that 
increased confidence in the success of acclimated thoroughbreds will incite to 
their use. There is a wise and pervading dread of unacclimated cattle of this 
character, because of the great losses incurred in them by pioneers; but as pro- 
gressive breeders and those who are opposed to change see the good results from 
the use of thorouglibreds acclimated, they will more and more adoj)! the latter. 

Acclimated thoroughbreds of the milk strains will be in demand, because 
butter and cheese must, for many years, find in Texas one of the best markets in 
the world, because it is one of the most rapidly populating localities in the world, 
is susceptible of such multifarious industries, and will some day become the 
theatre of such vast consumption of the products of such vocations, in being 
largely a mining area and engaged in manufacturing textiles. 

As to the quality of the Texas beef and the characteristic of the native cattle, 
I learn that the Chicago market will show that 1,000 pony Texas steers have 
brought a higher price per pound and realized as large a gross sum as did 1,200 
pound "half-breeds" on the market the same day, taken from the same range the 
same day. The reason is said to be that the Texans, with one-eighth Short Horns 
or Herefords, taKe on fat and "ripen," while the others only grow. 

The following extracts are from a "Report in Regard to the Range and 
Ranch Cattle Business of the United States," b}^ Joseph Nimmo, Jr., and just 
issued by the Treasury Department of tlie United States : 

"The total nimiber of cattle in the State of Texas is the result of a careful 
estimate upon the subject by Mr. George B. Loving, of Fort Worth, and Mr. D. 
W, Hinkle, of San Antonio, Tex. The assessment rolls of the State for 1884 give 
as the total number 6,517,524 cattle, valued at $81,052.()10; but the gentlemen just 
named agree in the belief that, owing to unavoidable errors in the report of the 
comptroller of public accounts, the total number may be stated at 9,000,000, and 
their value at $153,000,000. * * * 

*Aii occasional Brahma bull has been introduced to cross on the native cattle for beef. 



342 TEXAS. 

"The total number and value of cattle in the United States, in the State of 
Texas, and in the range and ranch cattle area north of Texas, is therefore aa 
follows : 

NO. OF CATTLK. VAUTE OF CATTLE. 

The' United States 49,417,782 $1,189,577,000 

The State of Texas 9,000,000 1 53,000,000 

The range and ranch cattle area north of Texa.s 7,500,000 187,500,000 

"About half of the area of the State, including the eastern portion not 
embraced in the rtuige and ranch cattle area, has been taken up, and is now being 
cultivated ;is farms. In this i)art of the State cattle are raised as domestic 
animals, beini:: generally provided with food and shelter in the winter. The 
rang(! and ranch ])()rtion is also, to a considerabh; extent, settled up by farmers, 
especially the eastern and southern portions of the State." 

The range and ranch cattle area starts on the coast a few miles east of Mata- 
gorda, trending northeast with a semi-circular sweep a few miles east of* San 
Antonio; thence, with a reversing curve, trending north-northeast a few miles 
west of Austin, a few miles east of Lampasas, a few miles west of Waco, a few 
miles west of Dallas, and sweeping nearly east, just beyond the river, to Denison, 
in the northern part of the State. 

"The distinction between the 'range' and the 'ranch' cattle business, herein 
obst^rved, is that the former designation applies to the raising and fottening of 
cattle upon public lands, or upon uufenced lands generally, where the herds of 
different proprietors freely range and intermingle; whereas the 'ranch' cattle 
business is carried on within inclosures belonging to cattlemen, on which only 
their own cattle graze. 

"The State of Texas is, in a marked degree, a cattle-breeding State. Its 
climate is well suited to that industr}', especially in view of the fact that the 
calves of range cows are, under the prevailing custom as to breeding, dropped at 
all seasons of the j^ear. Not only do the cows of Texas have more calves during 
their lifetime than cows upon the ranges of the Northwestern Territories of the 
United States, but of the total number of cows, a larger proportion have calves 
each year; also, of the calves dropped, a larger proportion survive in Texas than 
upon the more northerl}'^ ranges and ranches. Differences of opinion exist, how- 
ever, as hereinbefore mentioned, as to the relative advantages of Texas as p 
breeding State for cattle. * * * It is asserted that the State of Texas has 
to-day as many breeding cows as all the other States and Territories west of the 
Mississippi River together. 

'• The capacit}'- of the range and ranch lands of the United States for grazing 
cattle difiers widely in the several States, Territories and sections, as the result of 
differences in the quantity and quality of nutritious grasses produced, the water 
supply, and the extent to which natural shelter is available for cattle during 
storms. In Texas from five to thirty acres of land per head are required, and 
on the Northern ranges almost the same differences are observable in different 
localities. 

" The ultimate limit of the capacity of the entire range and ranch cattle area 
of the United States for grazing, and the magnitude of its possible annual pro- 
duct, can, of course, only be ascertained from the results of experience. It is 
evident from the best available information that the number of cattle on ranches 
and ranges in Texas might be greatl}' increased. Mr. George B. Loving, of Fort 
Worth, Tex., in reply to inquiries addressed to him by this office, expresses the 
opinion that by providing reservoii-s, sinking artesian wells and destroying the 
prairie dogs, which, in certain parts of the State, consume a larger quantity of 
the nutritious grasses than is consumed by cattle, the number of range and ranch 
cattle pastured in that State might perhaps be doubled. 



TEXAS. 343 

*' The Texas fever, its cause and its pathology, are yet involved in mysteiy. 
* * * Its cause, whatever it may be, is undoubtedly persistent, and yet it is 
not invariable as to the circumstances attending its appearance. It is endemic 
rather than epidemic. The lowlands bordering upon the Gulf of Mexi('o are 
undoubtedly the locality of its origin. This infected area is believed to embrace 
somewliat more than one-half of the State of Texas. * * * 

"So long as cattle born and raised in this gulf section remain there, Texas 
fever is unknown among them; but when they are driven or transported to the 
northern part of Texas, or to the States and Ten-itories of the Northwest, they 
comnmnicate the disease to the cattle of these more northern latitudes. Such 
infection of Northern cattle appears to be invariably the result of their walking 
over or feeding upon the trails along which Texas cattle have passed. The 
Southern Texas cattle on their way North, in most cases, suffer a constitutional 
disturbance apparently attributable to change of food and climate, but it is said 
that usually they are not affected by what is distinctively known as 'Texas' fever. 
This appears to mvolve the apparent paradox of their imparting a disease which 
they themselves do not have. Nevertheless, there is a consensus of opinion among 
careful observers indicating that this is really the case, and the opinion appears to 
command popular belief 

"The theory now generally held is, that the cause of the disease exists in a 
latent state in the cattle of Southern Texas, under conditions of climate and food 
which produce no impairment of the health of the animal, but that during migra- 
tion towards the North, such latent cause of disease passes off in fecal matter, and 
is inhaled or taken into the stomachs of the Northern animals when they feed 
upon the ground over which the Texas cattle have passed. In other words, the 
disease is believed to be an incident of a changed condition in Texas cattle by 
acclimatization. It is also a pretty well established fact that it is not, at least to 
any great extent, contagious. It is held by many that no animal which has taken 
the disease from the trail can communicate it to his fellows who have not been 
upon the trail. 

"The general testimony appears to be to the effect that Texas cattle driven 
North have never communicated the disease to other cattle north of the South 
Platte River, nor to cattle in the State of Colorado. It has been assumed there- 
fore that the disease is limited as to the sphere of its manifestation both by 
latitude and elevation. It is also the accepted theory that the cause of the 
disease is eliminated from the systems of the Southern Texas cattle while 'on the 
trail' from their place of nativity to the ranges of the North. It is also a well- 
established fact that herds driven slowly are very much less likely to communicate 
the disease to the cattle in the northern part of Texas and to other Northern 
cattle than when driven rapidly. Experience also proves that the disease is nmch 
more likely to manifest itself during the months of June, July, August and Sep- 
tember than during the other months of the year. That cattle driven from the 
State of Texas gradually lose the power of imparting disease as they proceed 
North, and that the limits of the area of infection have been approximately deter- 
mined, appear to be facts pretty well established. 

" According to the best estimate which can now be made, there have been 
about 2,000,000 young cattle driven from Texas to Northern ranges during the 
last seven years, which at $15 a head would amount to $80,000,000. The 'drive' 
of the year 1884 was about 300,000, which at $17 a head amounted to $5,100,000. 
These figures, the best which can be obtained, are of course only rough approxi- 
mations. They clearly indicate, however, a large demand at the North for young 
Texas cattle, and a supply adequate to meet such demand. The movement has 
been about as regular as commercial movements are generally, the tendency, on 



344 TEXAS. 

the whole, being iu the direction of progress. It is asserted upon apparently good 
authority that fully one-half of the blood of all the cattle on the Northern ranges 
to-day is of the Texas strain. Many persons largely engaged in the cattle trade 
at the North and the cattle raisers of Texas generally maintain that Texas must 
in the future hold the position of a breeding ground, and the Northern ranges 
that of a maturing and fattening ground ; but that view is controverted by a 
majority of the herdsmen of the North, and especially by those engaged in the 
business of raising cattle and of improving the breed of Northern range cattle." 

Sheep. — The business of raising sheep in Texas has become one of great 
magnitude; as to that there can be no doubt. As to its profitableness, that is 
another question. It is quite certain that heavy losses have been incurred, and 
many raisers have become quite dispirited. It is certain that a vast improvement 
can be made in many respects, and the loose mode in which the business is con- 
ducted is an explanation of many of the great losses. Indifferent herding, 
"northers," scab, lack of shelter, poor rams, too little attention to grading, too 
large flocks, non-selection of ewes, failure to properly select wools, twice-a-year 
shearing, improper shearing, etc., etc., are fruitful causes of loss. 

The sheep common to Texas now is a grade Merino. The Mexican ewe, a 
small, hardy sheep, is crossed by a Merino. The "get" is a greatly improved 
animal,* both being hardy and fine rangers. These ewes can be bought at from 
75 cents to $1.50 per head. 

The lands upon which the sheep feed generally are either school lands, leased 
from the State for a small consideration in annual rent, or lands rented of the 
different railroad corporations. 

In herds not too large, the rate of increase is from 75 to 80 per cent. Flocks 
are grazed in herds of from 1,000 to 5,000 head, in charge of a shepherd. Some 
flock-masters build corrals of brush ; others have light hurdles into which they 
put their sheep at night. The former is the better mode. No feed is provided 
except that by nature. 

The mutton feature must not be looked to as a source of much revenue. 
When Texas becomes populous and different breeds come in, (largely, I mean,) or 
the raising of early lambs for market becomes a business, other factors than wool 
will change the face of affairs. 

Sheep raising has undoubtedly been profitable, but with increased cost of 
lands, profits will be largely decreased, especially to the present ownership. 
Then, many poor people owned the sheep, and did not or could not buy the lands 
when they were cheap. Again, the sheep fever prevailing with men a few years 
ago induced them to buy at prices far in excess of prices of to-day. 

A brief allusion was made to shearing twice a year — in the spring and fall — 
as being one reason of injury to the sheep business in Texas. The tendency now 
is to one shearing a year. The bad efl'ccts of cold weather after fall shearing, the 
length of the fleeces — better prices for long fleeces — and the wealthier condition 
of the wool growers, are the explanations of this growing determination. The 
liability to a "norther" with short fleece is a feature not common to the rest of 
the South. The fibre of the wool, too, is changed in condition by the impairment 
of the vigor of the sheep. 

The day will be likely to come when the great struggle for the woolen mills 
for the New England market and of the country generally will be between the 
South and Australia. In the Introduction the ground has been taken that the 
future will probably see the South raising the Saxony sheep, and will find her the 

*The effect of crossing a Mexican ewe shearing a pound of wool, if bred to a pure Merino buck, 
will give a lamb which, at a year old, will produce three pounds of wool ; and the produce, if an ewe 
and bred to a pure buck, will yield four and one-half to five pounds of finer wool. The wool charac- 
teristic in a pure Merino is far-reaching and enduring. 



TEXAS. 345 

seat of manufacture of the finest "W'oolen gotnls of the world. Texas must play 
her part in this, but not, of course, under the present modus operandi in sheep 
culture, and not with Merinoes. But Texas already is a great wool producer for 
New England mills. Boston and St. Louis and Philadelphia are all competitors 
for Texas wool, and purchasers from these cities are to be found in numbers at 
the great wool marts of the State. Prices at Abilene, Tex., only recently were 
from 12 to 18^ cents per pound. 

Texas has made great progress in grading. It is estimated that 90 per cent. 
of her sheep are, in greater or less degree, of Merino blood. Some superb rams — 
the highest bred from the stock farms of Vermont, New York and elsewhere — 
have been introduced year by year for some time, this breed being adapted to the 
climate and to the peculiarities of the soil, bearing extremes of weather, enduring 
a scarcity of food with comparative impunity, besides its great wool quality, &c. 
Such improvement has there been in wool within a few years, that the clip of this 
last spring — 1885 — has shown samples rated by experts in the colonial staple, I 
am informed, as Botany or Port Philip wools. Time was when Texas wools went 
into Eastern markets in such condition as to incur a shrinkage of 75 to 80 per 
cent. The fleece was so inferior that it was a drug in the market, and fit only for 
the most common felting purposes; and the fleeces were made up in the most 
unshapely ways with hemps, " tags," cotton seed and other trash. 

And then the pasturage is being improved, and this will obtain more and 
more as cultivated grasses are introduced and areas are cut up into small tracts, 
and better care given sheep. Shelters are more and more coming into vogue, 
water is being provided, and even, in parts, hay is being made to tide over a short 
season, where no natural food is found, in the colder parts of the State. Associa- 
tions are organizing where opinions as to preventing diseases are discussed — scab 
being most annoying — and other matters pertinent to sheep husbandry. 

Then, as a most material matter, shipping fiicilities are being increased, and it 
is thought that through rates to Boston will be made as cheap as to St. Louis, and 
markets will compete with each other in ofl'ering prices. Home speculators are 
entering the field to bid against buyers from a distance ; and the raisers are get- 
ting wiser than to slaughter prices, and are abler to hold wool. 

Then, the literature of the business is increasing and improving. Journals 
devoted to pastoral afl'airs are multiplying and receiving patronage. 

Another great aspect of improvement is the comparative freedom from burs. 
This has been a great pest, and the absence of these is an incontestable proof of 
the improvement in pasturage. 

And before long there will probably be great union wool depots or exchanges 
where a home market can be provided ; where the manufacturer can deal with the 
flock-master without intermediates sharing the profits. At such places the manu- 
facturers can send their experts to select and complete purchases. Experts in. 
packing can make up bales at the points of these exchanges and send to Galves- 
ton, and get cheap transportation to Boston, Philadelphia and elsewhere.* And 
then, surely, woolen mills will multiply in the State, and these can bid higher than 
Eastern manufacturers and help to buoy prices of wool. 

A tendency to make advances as a business on wool is developing, seemingly 
mainly from St. Louis. It is to be hoped that this may fail, in the interest of the 
State. It gives the opportunity to dictate prices; it allures to improvidence; it 
tends, almost inevitably results, in paying for tliis wool with Western corn, flour, 
hay, pork, lard, etc., thus discouraging or preventing, ^>r<? tanto., the production of 
these at home; it promises, measurably, a continuance or restoration of all the 



*Wool-scouring mills may be looked for in the future as a help to the wool-growing interest. At 
least, one has been established, and it is said to be very profitable. 



346 TEXAS. 

pernicious features of the " advancing sj'steni" to tlie cotton growers — a system 
that lias done more to beggar and impede the material progress of the South than 
aught, possibly all, else. Its entire tendency, when the advances arc made m dis- 
tant cities, is to militate against the erection of woolen mills, thus discouraging 
the most potcntinl factor possible in promoting high prices for wool, and forbid- 
ding consumers of mutton — a virtual drag in Texas now — by future operatives in 
the mills. Texas ought to be the great thentre of woolen mills in the United 
States; everything demonstrates it. Let her not erect a system most vitally 
repugnant to it. 

Here comes to mind a distinguishing characteristic in the economics of 
Texas, and a matter of vast and incomputable value — that is, that she has, in her 
cattle and wool, two immense sources of revenue at a time when money is gener- 
ally very "tight" in the South. No one not familiar with the cotton States of 
the South can appreciate or conceive the exceeding scarcity of money there until 
cotton comes in. Then times are flush. ^Money is abundant, and it is spent like 
water. It is a freshet of funds, and soon all is dry again. With the " advance 
system" on cotton, the cott<m States, in large agricultural areas, may be virtually 
said to have no money from February to September. Everything is bought on 
credit, and the most ruinous prices are paid. A little while ago one could buy 
corn for cash in the cotton States for 90 cents or %1 per bushel, when, on credit, it 
was "advanced" at the rate of $1.25 to $1,50 per bushel. So on through. Now,, 
the disbursement of large sums of money in Texas for wool and cattle are pre- 
ventives or great alleviatives of this, and tend (what is of inestimable service as a 
business principle) to establish the cash system — a method of business so badly 
needed South — thus inaugurating and maintaining a powerful, invigorating and 
fructifying principle in an enduring, indestructible and enlarging focus. Texas 
thus l)ecomcs a great educator to the rest of the South ])y a polic}'^ broadly benefi- 
cent in its illustrations of the wisdom of diversified industries, as well as invigor- 
ating the body politic by these golden currents poured through her veins — this 
blood of nations, as it were. 

According to the Report of the Agi"icultural Department for 1884, the total 
number of sheep in the United States in January, 1884, was 50,626,G2(). The 
average value of them was $119,902,706. The average price each was $2. 37. 

The number in Texas was 7,956,275; the value was $17,822,056; the average 
price, $2.24. California had 6,203,064; their value was $11,785,822; the average 
price, $1.90 each. Ohio had 5,000,036; their value was $14,650,105; the average 
price, $2.93 each. These are the highest States in the industry. 

Texas now produces more wool than any other State in the Union, except 
California and Ohio. Abilene, Colorado, Corpus Christi and San Antonio are the 
largest wool shipping points, some of them handling 10,000,000 pounds a year. 

It is idle to attempt an estimate of percentage of losses. The Agritailtural 
Report for 1884, while computing the losses in cattle, is silent as to sheep ; and 
then, such a computation, if exact, would afford no criterion as to the profitable- 
ness or risks of the business. The matter would be perplexed with so many 
obviable or varying conditions, that the naked facts of the loss of sheep in any 
given year would be next to valueless for the purpose of giving a fair idea of 
the business. Exceptional shortness of pastures in fall, severe winter weather, 
greater prevalence of disease, &c., all together or separately, enter into results. 
Then, proper shelter, feed, herding, etc., alleviate the above conditions. 

Texas is, in its main area, one of the best climates and soils for sheep. The 
"foot" is good, the food nutritious, the sheep generally healthy, and as some of 
the native grasses disappear under the trying pasturage of sheep, the invaluable 
mesquite succeeds, rendering more food and better. 



TEXAS. 347 

As the cattle range moves further north and west, the sheep seem to succeed 
them, and sheep raising is more and more being combined Avith ordinary farming 
operations. About Midway, for instance, they are raising wheat, pumping water 
with wind-mills, raising sheep, etc., in a country considered almost uninhabitable 
only three or four years ago for want of water. Along through that country and 
further east — Colorado City and elsewhere — the ranges were covered with cattle 
that have gone westward and northward into the Panhandle, and their places are 
now taken bj'' sheep. 

There is one condition of affairs common to the rest of the South from which 
Texas is fortunately comparatively exempt — the cur is not master of the situation 
in Texas. The sparseness of population, the system of herding, differentiate the 
State, in the main, from the South at large. 

The magnitude of sheep husbandry in Texas, the possibilities of it in multi- 
fariousness of aspect, are temptations to conjecture. The daj^ niay come when 
Texas will raise sheep, become the sheep nursery, for the Western States and 
Territories, as she is now their cattle nursery. They may be "drifted" there 
without any trouble as to trail or quarantine. Or, after awhile, Texas may get 
into large breeds and regard " muttons." Then, it may be that Imtchers and sheep 
dealers will go there to buy sheep to carry through the winter, and to fatten for 
the markets of the populous cities of Ohio, Indiana, Pennsylvania, Illinois, &c. 
Surely, the day will come when it will be a large business to send refiigcrated 
carcasses of tine fat sheep to these markets, and early lambs in the same mode, as 
well as alive, from the State. And we may hope for many woolen mills, and some 
of them making finest fabrics from the future Saxonys raised in the State. 

Mules and Horses. — I have said that there is a growitig tendency to raise 
fine stock in Texas. To know the dimensions of this is impossible It may be 
said that it is always going ahead too rapidly to keep pace with it. The vicinity 
of Fort AVoryi is notable in this regard. Herefords and Durhams are there being 
crossed on native cattle. Fine jacks are being imported there and elsewhere. At 
various points cheap pasture lands are inducing Kentucky and Tennessee mule 
raisers to establish ranches. 

The large breeds of horses are being introduced. The Northwest Texas- 
Norman Company are raising Normans on the grasses of a good pasture as a 
principal feed, and their success demonstrates the feasibility and i)rofitableness ot 
the business. The Champion Cattle Company of Texas, some time ago, bought 
the noted Casey, Adair and Salmon herd of cattle and horses, about 33,000 head, 
for $1,000,000. Individuals are bringing in Norman Percherons and fine Ken- 
tucky saddle stallions. 

A moment's reflection upon the enormous demand for saddle horses and 
mules in Texas will show the opportunities for tliose phases of live-stock breed- 
ing. Men on the ranch will want saddle horses; negroes and Southern men will: 
want mules; the demand for large horses will be active in the towns and cities 
for draft horses; and Western farmers, who are accustomed to large-bodied 
horses, will constitute for a long time a great element of demand for such 
animals. The bare mention of the fact of the formerly immense herds of mus- 
tangs in Texas subsisting in a state of nature, demonstrates how considerable an 
element of sustenance the native grasses of the State furnish to horse-flesh. 

The Agricultural Report of 1884 shows the number of horses in the State to 
be 889,003, and of mules 149,121. The reader will observe the number of mules, 
and see how it enforces the assertion as to the demand for them from Southern 
white men and negroes. Very few of these mules are home-bred ; nor is it pos- 
sible to estimate how many of them were imported by the Southern wliite men 
and negroes who migrated to Texas to raise cotton on the fresh lands of the 



348 TEXAS. 

State. It is a clear denionstratioii, liowevcr, of the use of and demand for this 
animal by so large a percentage of the population of the State, and a clear indi- 
cation of the large opportunity for breeding mules there. It must be understood 
that the horses are largely mustangs, a breed tliat, as valuable as it is for frontier 
life, must pass away with more agricultural methods, thus all the while offering 
the very best opportunity for raising horses of a different type. 

Hogs. — The last census credits Texas with 1,950,^71 head of swine; her 
population was then 1,591,749. Tennessee, of States considered in tliis work, 
alone surpassed her in the number of swine, possessing 2,100,495. The popula- 
tion of Tennessee at the last census was 1,542,359. 

The number in Texas in 1884, as shown by the United States Agricultural 
Report, was 2,011,785. It is probable that the number has not increased in pro- 
portion to population, for so rapid is the influx of people, that supply does not 
keep pace with demand. But this shows the opportunity the State offers to the 
business, for a large proportion of her population are pork consumers, the census 
of 1880 showing nearly 20 per cent, colored ; and as she has a large population of 
Southern native whites, the demand for pork will be very considerable, in propor- 
tion to population, for years yet. It is also true that much of her population of 
late years — Western farmers and Europeans — are shrewd enough to see how great 
is tlie demand in the State for pork, and will address themselves to the oppor- 
tunity of such a demand and raise hogs. 

Outside of the question of demand and supply comes the query: " Is Texas 
adapted to hog raising?" And this question seems answered by the fact of her 
production. If it were not a practicable and profitable industry, it would not 
have been such a considerable one as in 1880 ; would not have progressed as in 
1884. 

The inducements to hog raising in Texas ought to be greater than "West. 
There is the home demand, greater, out of all comparison, in Texas, in proportion 
to population, than at the West. The vast quantities of oak, hickory, pecan, 
beech, "post-oak grapes," etc., in Texas offer great inducements to hog raising; 
and as the Berkshire and grades of it are excellent rangers, hogs can be raised in 
the rich Texas bottoms, where those trees abound, for nothing or next to it. It 
is admitted that these facilities are not diffused over the whole State; but one 
must never forget the vastness of area of Texas, and her hog ranches would 
probably make as great an area as almost any State in the Union in its territory 
for all purposes. Some day this great natural mast-ground will be well utilized 
in hog raising. 

There can be no good reason why Texas should not raise and market hogs 
more cheaply than any Western or Northwestern State. She has already sent 
some hogs to New Orleans and St. Louis. Even West and Southwestern Texas 
is being considered by capitalists as a proper theatre for raising hogs for the sole 
purpose of converting them into lard, not handling tlie carcass at all. It is 
claimed that there are sites there that will pay 300 per cent, on the investment. 
And 1 cannot see why the day of pork packing may not come, or the refrigerator 
system for handling them, as beef is now done in the Western cities. 

The Angora Goat. — This animal is beginning to excite interest in the 
South. Considerable money has been spent in experimenting with it, and with 
great success. Dr. John L. Hays, whose name is familiar to all readers of litera- 
ture on sheep husbandry, has written a work on the topic of this article. One of 
the best and largest herds of Angoras is in the South, in Georgia, and the owner 
of it has paid very high prices for imported animals. This herd I have visited. 
There are one or more considerable herds of thoroughbreds in Texas, and the 
same of grades. In Parker County there is a herd of the former of over 500, and 



TEXAS. 34^ 

in another part of the State there is a herd of 1,500 or more of grades. Doubtless 
there are a number of small flocks of both thoroughbreds and grades scattered 
over the State. The Texas live-stock journals are commending tlie animal to tlic 
public. The animal is hardy, thrives well in the rougli country, protects itself 
well, but needs to be watched, as it is a great rambler. With fifteen-sixteenths of 
pure blood, the fleece will sell at from 40 to 62 cents per pound, and they will 
shear six or seven pounds each. 

The Angora goat, at its best, is said to be the most valuable of the lanigerous 
animals. The skin is the Turkey morocco of ancient c(mimerce, or, finished with 
the hair on, furnishes mats, rugs, robes, etc., of great durability and beauty, taking 
all dyes, as do the fleeces, with the facility of silk. Its product in fleeces is one of 
the leading four or five raw fibres of the world. The future of mohair would 
seem to be very important. There is great demand for it, and if sufficient could 
be had, many mills to use it would spring up. 

The climate of Texas is said to be favorable to the propagation of the goat, 
and it is credibly alleged that in certain localities in Texas the growth of the 
fabric in texture cannot be excelled in the native haunts of the animal. 

The breed is very prolific — a characteristic. 

The flesh of the pure Angora is said to be most delicious, upon a very high 
authority in the South. 

With the demand for hides for leather, and that of the fleece for purposes 
above enumerated, it would seem that there is great scope for goat raising in the 
State, and the interest in the business is considerable there. Western Texas 
would seem to be quite as eligible as California, and the Angora succeeds well in 
the latter State. Indeed, Texas has been tried well enough to demonstrate the 
success of the business. 

As the Angora will live in a country where sheep will not ; as they seldom 
die except from old age ; as they do not conflict with cattle ; as they are so fecund 
and their fleece worth so much ; as, for many years yet, there will be a great 
demand for fleeces, the business is just waiting on the will, ready to yield a most 
remunerative return to those who will engage in it. 

I have, perhaps, given undue space to this subject, but stock raising is asso- 
ciated with Texas in the minds of the world as Florida with oranges and Alabama 
with coal and iron. She is par excellence the grazing Siate of the Union, and it 
has been felt that much would be expected in the way of subject-matter in writing 
on this topic. 

FORESTRY. 

The following is from the Report of the Tenth Census : 

The most important forests of Texas are found in the extreme eastern part 
of the State, where the Maritime Pine Belt of the South Atlantic region extends 
to about midway between the Trinity and the Brazos Rivers. A forest of long- 
leaved pine occupies most of the territory between the Sabine and the Brazos 
south of the 31st degree of north latitude, reaching south to within 20 miles of 
the coast. Beyond the long-leaved pine forests, forests of the loblolly pine, mixed 
with hard woods, stretch westward 50 or 60 miles, while north of these two 
regions a third division of the pine belt, composed of a heavy growth of short- 
leaved pine mingled with upland oaks, occupies the rolling ridges which extend 
northward to beyond the Red River. The swamps which line the larger streams 
flowing into the gulf, especially within the limits of the pine belt, still contain 
large bodies of cypress. The quality of the Texas cypress, however, is inferior 
to that grown east of the Mississippi River, and probably one-third of the timber 
growing in the valleys of the Sabine and the Nueces Rivers is "peggy" or 
aflected by dry rot. 



350 TEXAS. 

AVcst of the i>ine bell open forests hirg-ely (•()m|)()sed of post and black-jack 
oaks occur, gradually decreasing in density, and finally, west of the 97th degree 
of longitude, entirely disappearing. Farther west, however, tlie ''lower" and 
"upper cross-timbers," two remarkable bodies of timber composed of small and 
stunted specimens of these oaks, extend from the Indian Territory far south into 
the prairie region, occupying long, narrow, irregular belts where sandy or gravelly 
alluvial deposits overlie the limestone of the prairie region. A belt of forest 
laigely composed of post and black-jack oaks, varying from 20 to 50 miles in 
width, extends southwest of the Trinity nearly to the Nueces River, its eastern 
border following generally, at a distance of from 50 to GO miles inland, the trend 
of the coast. The bottom lands east of the lOOth meridian are lined with the 
deciduous trees Avldch occupy similar situations in the eastern gulf States. Near 
the coast the bjttom lands of the large rivers, often several miles in width, are 
covered witl^ dense forests composed of enormous trees. Farther west the 
bottoms gradually narrow, the number of arborescent species covering them 
decreases, and individual trees are small and stunted. 

AVest of the Colorado River the forests of the Atlantic region are replaced 
outside of the bottom lands by Mexican forms of vegetation; the hills are covered 
with a stunted growth of mesquite, Mexican persimmon, various acacias, and 
other small trees of little value except for fuel and fencing. 

An important tree in the forest of Western Texas is the cedar covering the 
low limestone hills which occupy hundreds of square miles north and west of tlie 
Colorado River, in Travis, Bastrop, Hays, Comal and adjacent counties. West of 
the 100th meridian all forest growth disappears, with the exception of a few scat- 
tered cottonwoods, elms and hackberries, confined to the narrow bottoms, and a 
shrubby growth of mes([uite, which covers the plains of Western Texas, furnish- 
ing the only fuel of the region. The mountain ranges — outlying ridges of the 
Rocky Mountains — which occupy the extreme western part of the State, are 
covered with an oi>en, stunted forest of Western pines and cedars, with which 
mingle the post oak, tlie yellow oak and other species of the Atlantic region. 

The pine belt covering the eastern counties of the State is alone important as 
a source of lumber supply. Areas of river-bottom land covered with trees are, as 
comi)ared Avith the area of the State, insignificant in extent, and these river belts 
of forest are entirely insufficient to supply even the mere local wants of the 
nearest settlements. The oak forests, which stretch more or less continuously 
between the eastern pine belt and the treeless western prairies and plains, are, 
excei)t along their extreme eastern borders, composed of small stunted trees, often 
hollow, defective, and of little value except for fuel, fence rails and railway ties. 
The forests of the western mountains are not luxuriant, and, at the best, can only 
supply a limited local demand with inferior lumber. It is probably no exaggera- 
tion to say tliat west of the pine belt, and with the exception of the small amount 
of hard wood found on the bottom lands near the coast, the forests of Texas do 
not contain a single tree fit to manufacture into first-class lumber. The pine 
forests, therefore, of Eastern Texas and Western Louisiana are important factors 
In the future development of Texas, as well as of the treeless northeastern prov- 
inces of Mexico, which must draw their Imilding material from these i)in«'ries. 
The i)ositi(m of these forests, therefore, with reference to an enormous territory 
destitute of timber, although adapted to agriculture and grazing, and which must 
soon be covered w ith a c<msiderable ])oini]Htion and a net-work of railroads, their 
richness of composition and the facility with which they can be worked, give to 
them, perhaps, a greater prospective value than that possessed by any other body 
of timber of similar extent in the United States. 



Diiriiiir tlio census year 5l)<J,:i5J) acics of woodland vv(;re reported damaged by 
fire, Avitli an estimated loss of $278,090. Of these fiics the larger number was set 
to improve pastura.u'e, in (bearing land or tlirongh malice. These returns do not 
include the large aicas burned in Western Texas by prairie fires, checking the 
growth of the mescjuite o\ «-r a great extent of territory. 

Small amoimls of cooperage stock and woodenware, principally for local 
consumiition,are manufactured in the eastern couifties from oak and cypress. 
Manufacturcis report an abundant supply of material. 

The following rough estimates of the amounts of the three kinds of pine 
stamling in the State May 81, 1880, were made by multiplymg the average stand 
of tuuber per acre by the county areas occupied by the pine forests, these l^eing 
obtained by deducting from total areas of the county estimated areas covered by 
dealings, bottom lands, swami)s, etc.: 

Long-leaved pine {Pinus PaluMns), 20,508.200,000 feet, board measure; short- 
leaved pine {I^inus mttis), 20.098,200,000 feet, board measure; loblolly pine [Pinus 
Tmla\ 20,907,100,000 feet, board measure. 

The piincipal centers of lumber manufacture in Texas are Orange and Beau- 
mont, on the Sabine and Nueces Rivers, above Sabiue Pass. Long-leaved pine 
and cypress are sawed here and shipped east and west by rail, and in small quan- 
tities by schooner to Texan and Mexican ports. Loblolly pine is sawed at a 
number of small mills upon the line of the International and Great Northern 
Railroad in the counties south of the Trinity River, and a large amount of short- 
leaved pme is manufactured in the mills upon the line of the Texas Pacific 
Railroad in the northeastern counties, Longview, in Gregg County, beino- the 
principal center of this industry. The product of these mills is shipped west by 
rail to supply settlers upon the prairies of Northern Texas with building material. 

MINERALS. 

Texas has been known principally as a stock-raising and agricultural State 
and the importance of the mineral resources of the State, vast and varied h-is 
been overshadowed hj the greater magnitude of these two interests. Now, how- 
ever, the value and extent of her minerals are becoming more generally known, 
-and they are receiving constantly increasing attention. 

COAL. 

Coal exists in inexhaustible quantities. Dr. Wm. Beryee, of Corpus Christi 
Texas, commissioner in charge of the geological and mineralogical exhibit of 
Texas at the New Orleans World's Exposition, writes: 

The area of the true coal measure is estimated to be about 10,000 square 
miles, and the coal found in it can be successfully used for smelting, for o-enera- 
Wug steam and for manufacturing gas. ^' '^ 

Young, Jack, Palo Pinto, Stephens, Shackleford, Eastland, Callahan, Brown 
Comanche, Coleman, Taylor and portions of adjoining counties belong to the' 
true carboniferous belt. The coals found in more recent formations in eastern 
southeastern and other portions of the State have less fixed carbon, but a very 
large amount of bitumen. (Joke cannot be made advantageouslv from' such coals 
but they can be used for the manutacture of gas, and, with i.nproved furnaces' 
may be used for smelting. ' 

Brown lignite has been discovered in a nmnber of localities in Texas, notably 
near San Antonio, where it sold last y.-ar at $7 i)er ton retail. 

In Young County, oil the line of the Texas and Pacific Railwav, about three 
feet of good bituminous coal has been found. 

A good bitumim)us coal seam three feet three inches thick has been opened 
at Crystal Falls, 30 miles from the Ihie of above railroad. 



352 TEXAS. 

In AVise Comity, 10 miles west of Decatur, in proximity to tlie Fort Worth 
and Denver City Railway, 22 inches of clean, pure coal, with hard black-slate roof 
and fire-clay bottom, has been fully exposed. It is reported that a large area of 
coal underlies Wise County. Much of the territory lying above water level can 
be mined easily and cheaply on tunnel plan. 

Coal mining has been in progress four years at Laredo, the terminus of the 
International and Great Northern Railroad, on the borders of Mexico. 

A clean 4-foot seam of very good coal is reported in the precincts of Eagle 
Pass. 

There is also coal in Jack County said to be three feet thick. It will need to 
be mined by either shaft or slope. 

Coal has been exposed at Colorado City. 

IRON ORES. 

There are vast deposits of iron ore in Texas. The exhibit at the New Orleans 
Exposition included hematite and limonite from Cherokee and Rusk, magnetite 
from Llano, and sphsBrosiderite or spatic iron from Ar(;her County. Dr. Deryee 
writes as follows : 

In the northeastern portion of the State, embracing Cass, Marion, Bowie, 
Harrison, Rusk, Cherokee and other counties, the iron industry has been in 
successful operation for many years. The Kellyville Iron Works in Marion 
County are an example. They have been profitably worked for nearly 20 years. 
The pig iron turned out of the furnace of Wm. Kelley is so tenacious that horse 
shoes and horse-shoe nails have been hammered out of it by blacksmiths. John 
F. Dickson, of Marshall, Texas, has for a long time made car wheels from it, and 
it is asserted that this is the only iron in the United States from which a market- 
able car wheel can be made without the admixture of other ore. The belt of this 
iron ore is computed 160 miles long and of an average width of two miles. The 
magnetite or magnetic iron ore from Llano County is the same ore worked at 
Pilot Knob, Missouri, and the ore of which the best Swedish iron is made. It is 
found massive in the counties of Llano, Mason and Burnet. 

The following is from Williams' " Mineral Resources of the United States," 
under head of Texas : 

MINERAL- 
C1GICAL NAME. COMMON NAME. REMARKS. 

Limonite Brown hematite Five miles east of Calvert, Robertson County, appear to be in 

large beds ; Milam County, opposite coal of Herndon, Robert- 
son County; Young's Iron Works, Cherokee County, both 
brown and red hematites abundant; eight miles south of Rusk, 
Cherokee County, ore inexhaustible; near McLain's works, 
north part of Nacogdoches County; Nash's mine, at works, 
Cass County; Kelley's Iron Works, five miles north of Jeffer- 
son, Cass County; three miles south of Palestine, Anderson 
County, extensive bed; Whitesborough, Grayson County; 
Mount Enterprise, Rusk County ; Jacksonville to Rusk, in 
Cherokee County. Iron ores occur in nearly every county in 
State where older tertiary rocks prevail. 

Magnetite Magnetic iron ore Burnet, Burnet County, thence southwest extend into Llano 

County, occtirring in thick beds in granites; largest bed 12 
miles west of Llano, Llano County; another large body eight 
miles northwest of latter; none of these deposits developed to 
any extent. 

GRANITE. 

Red and gray granite is found in abundance in several counties. Dr. A. 
Gregg says of the red granite from quan ies near Burnet : 

It has been submitted to the severest tests and the most critical examination 
by experts, and has been pronounced first-class as to durability, strength and 
adaptability for the construction of large edifices. Its color, having a warm and 
agreeable dark red ground, relieved by crystals of quartz, feldspar and mica, is 



TEXAS. 353 

much in its favor. The supply is practically inexhaustible. Sufficient could be 
procured from this quarry to build a city equal in size to London. 

OTHER MINERALS. 

exkM'r^ V, '' ^T^ " '"^.*' O"""""'^^^- Limestone, brown and gray sandstone 
exist in exliaustless quant.ties, and arc extensively used for building. Cement 
salt, gypsum, copper and many otber minerals are mined. 

MANUFACTURES. 

VrZ^nTr' n'f ' "' "" ^f"l '" ""'''"S •"<"■« ™Pi<l P^R'-ess in manufacturing. 
From tbe small begu„„„g of a few years ago, tbe industrial interests of tbo Stafe 
have grown to enormous proportions. And tins development is in many lines of 
mdustry. Flour mills, brick yards, planing and saw mills, furniture Lores 
macbme shops, cannmg lactories, ice factories, cottonseed-oil mills, handle facto- 
ncs cotton compresses-these are some of the industries recently started Tbe 
fle d, h.,wever ,s practically unlimited, and there is room for the investment of 
millions of <lo lars m manufacturing enterprises. Tbe following on this topic is 
from a recent issue of the Galveston News : 

Texas has come to be a great, populous State of intelligent, prosperous and 
progressive people, and presents tbe widest and most inviting fie d known at tUs 

ve^^W '"'"■'""%""'•,'''■"'" P""°* P™«P-ts,wiU double^her population „ a 
very few years; and with such a vast territory of productive soil suited to such a 
great variety of products, including a few of the most important mine al it is 
not a al likely that she will continue tbe great folly, tbe prodigious prodio.;i ty 
of shipping her products over 2,0(.0 miles, and even across tSe ocean, o bave 
them manufactured, and to find a market for tbe surplus 

..,» '^''"m ' '^f ? ''""^'^ '"' ""^ """' independent, self-reliant State in the world if 
she could only have any reasonable ordering of the productive system am the 
means of manufacturing her produce at home. With the growth of poputot on 
that IS to ensue for tbe next decade, her suiplus would be nearly consumed wkhin 
her own borders, and as a sequence, she would become the wealthies State n 
his inimitable galaxy of commonwealths. Hence, men of capital houd see and 
understaad all possible of tbe profits to be realized from manufacturing the nro 
ducts of the State at home, that they may be induced to mak Tiw stm ms ^ 
manufactories at an early day. vcBimems m 

nrodlff ""^ ^""™ ""P ""y "<" be subject to a heavier loss than any other 
product of our State, it is the most prominent at this time, and may serve to mus 
tra e ,be nature of the sacrifices we make in our mode of handli. "al The 
cotton crop may now be averagely put down at 1.200.000 bales of loO pounds 
each, valued at $60,000,000. The cost of transporting this crop to Northern 
m.anufacturers over 2.000 miles, Including return fLgbts'on manufactured artS 
for consumption, is not less than $10,000,000, while the manufacturers' profits may 
be safely put down at $10,000,000 more. These items are approximately correct- 
as much so, perhaps, as round numbers may be made to subserve the pun^o and 
sufficen ly so ,, indicate pretty clearly the losses we sustain by not manuactu ring 
our great staples at home. The estimates show a sacrifice of 33i per centof bf 
whole crop-$oo,ooo,000, a sufficient amount to erect and equip all the mills we 
need for the manufacture of our cotton and wool 

cronlTtl'rtl'nf '°^ °^ ''■'''" ■'" " °''^ ""' '"P''"y S"»""S '°^"^'"7. The present 
tZon T '"." ""''"'' ^''^'"^•"'^ pounds, but the cost of transporta- 

tion on ,t exceeds cotton in proportion, and the manufacturers' profits are greater 

extent on,",,"" """""''""""''S '"'"■•eBt in Texas of more importance, to the 
extent of it. than the manufacture of wheat into flour and bran. At least three- 



354 TEXAS. 

fourths of the flour consumed iu the State is imported from Kansas, Missouri, 
California and other States North, and yet the annual product of this State is 
about 20,000,000 bushels, of the home value of $16,000,000, two-thirds of which is 
ehipi^ed North. B}' this dis[)osition the bran and coarser grades of flour are 
almost an entire loss, the expense of transportation being nearly equal to the 
market value, amounting to a total deprivation of our people of the articles. The 
cost of shipping our wheat and reshipping the flour for consumption, with the 
proflts of manufacturers, amount to at least |5,000,000. 

There are mills in Texas, but they are not supplied with the great improved 
modes of making flour, and they are by no means of capacity to manufacture the 
crop of the State. What Texas wants is mills of the highest order; mills that 
can turn out flour of the finest quality, of the higiiest grades, and of capacity 
equal to the manufacture of our whole crop. 

But when we come to the subject of hides, figures speak iu thunder tones of 
reckless waste and injudicious management of a great staple commodity; the 
production of an industry that stands side by side with agriculture, and is as old 
as the earliest inhabitants. As witli cotton, on our 30,000,000 pounds of hides we 
are subjected to the ordinary loss by expenses of transportation, etc., of 32^ per 
cent., to which we may add 16|- per cent, for profits secured to manufacturers by 
the raising or watering process, that brings the hides up to an equality in value 
with hides of cattle of the most expensive rearing. 

But this hide question does not stop with manufacturing them into leather. 
Another profit is realized from manufacturing them into shoes and boots, and 
another expense — the cost of transporting them back to us for consumption. But 
in this connection must also be considered the packing of beef While the loss 
on hides manufactured abroad is too serious to be tolerated, the shipping of cattle 
adds to the quantity of hides to the extent of those thus disposed of, and if prop- 
erly considered in connection with slaughtering our beeves at home, we are 
driven to the conclusion that, with the increased facilities for making ice and 
refrigerating railroad cars, we should secure to ourselves the profits of all this 
diversified interest by establishing beef packeries, putting up shoe and boot facto- 
ries and laying down tanneries, that we may no longer be deprived of the profits 
of conunodities that we can produce so much cheaper than they can be produced 
in any other State, and therefore atfoi-d better profits. 

The material for tanning is abundant. The oak tree of many species is to be 
found nearl}^ all over the State. The mesquite abounds in exuberance in all the 
prairies of Cejitral and Western Texas, and the sumach is very abundant in some 
places. 

And now we come to that which is destined at an early day to become the 
grandest manufacturing interest of the State. The iron interest is simply 
immense, and its uses are daily increasing. The amount to be used to-day in the 
construction and repair of railroads and the rolling stock upon them is enor- 
mous; and wiien we consider the vast quantities required for agricultural 
building and other purposes, we must begin to realize the magnitude of the 
demand, while the prospect of an increase of our population must assure us of a 
great increase of that demand. 

Iron is doubtless the greatest mineral of the State — one of her greatest 
sources of wealth. Great beds of the richest ore are to be found all over the 
State that has been ascertained by tests and decided by experts to be of superior 
quality, unsurpassed by any known in Europe or America. In Eastern Texas it 
has been worked for a number of years and proved to be of high quality. In 
Northern and Central Texas scraps from croppings have been picked up on the 
surface and hammered into bolts and nails without lieating that presented as fine 



TEXAS 055 



an appearance as if it had been smelted. The iron of the State has been sub- 
jected to the process of converting it into steel, and has turned out specimens of 
excellent quality ; and yet with this invaluable treasure at our doors, at our com- 
mand, at our disposal, nearly all the iron and steel that have been used in building 
and equipping our 6,000 miles of railroad, fencing our millions of acres of land 
making our iron fronts and ornamental work, together with our agricultural' 
milling and other machinery and implements, are imported, much of it Irom 
i^iirope, at a lieavy expense of freight and charges, to say nothing of duties 
Ihe iron rails, angles, bolts and nuts for one mile of road foot up 120 tons and 
the f-^^^ft and charges on it from New York, Pennsylvania or Missouri amount 
to about $5,000. The iron for the track of 6,000 miles of road amounts to over 
one thousand million pounds-500,000 tons, upon which the freight and changes 
are about $25,000,000. We presume that the wheels, springs, Ixles and otSer 
ron of the rolling stock, with the other purposes of iron in the State, will at 
least equal that amount, and add to the freights, etc., of obtaining it from other 
States and countries $25,000,000 more, making the item of freights and charges 
alone $50,000,000-an amount sufficient, we think, to induce the constructionlf 
iron works at an early day; and we hope it may, that tl.is great mineral resource 
of our State may be developed. It seems to be inconsistent with the vi-ilant 
outlook of capitalists and men of enlerprise to see this rich mine of wealth this 
fine opportunity for investment, this field that gives such high promise for iar^e 
profits, overlooked, while an extraordinary outlay of money is made for the 
freights alone on the importation of an article with which the hills of the State 
are teeming, and only await the application of money and muscle to make it a 
source of profit equal at least to the outlay that has been made for transporting, it 
hither from other States. It is a singular fact, too, that the beds of ore are found 
mainly upon timbered lands-large bodies of timber of a quality fit only for fuel- 
and besides this, there has come to be no question of the existence of coal and 
that in abundance, and not very remote from where iron is found 

The western half of the State is supplied with water-power to which no 

exception could be taken; it is exceedingly fine, and we have no doubt but it 

maybe found profitable to improve and utilize the streams of the eastern half 

ower ''^'''^''''* '" abundant and cheap, and that and coal may be had for steam- 

EDUCATIOK 

The provision for education, in a pecuniary point of view, is simply colossal 
and the gigantic scheme is a towering and enduring monument to the wisdom 
and beneficence of its inventors. According to the best information my research 
has discovered, the educational fund will, in the end, be not le.s than from 

rtl^lcl!^ ^'''''''''''-"^^ '^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^'^^ educiuoniri^heme: 
" in nearly all the recently organized western frontier counties few commu- 
nities are found without their school-houses and schools. In the older settled 
sections of the State ample school focilities are found, and manv of the Ta^-ier 
.owns and cities can boast of colleges and high schools approaching, if not equal- 
ing, those to be found in the older States. ^ 

"For the preparation of teachers to conduct her public schools, Texas has 
provided and maintains two normal schools, furnishing both board and tuition to 
the students out of the treasury of the State ; has an agricultural and mechanical 
^college already m successful operation. Towards the buildings, grounds, appur- 
tenances, libraries and implements the State appropriated $250,000. The State 
University, located at Austin, the capital citv, has been recently oro-anized- exten- 
Bive and expensive buildings have been erected and a faculty selected, which 



356 TEXAS. 

includes some of the ablest instructors in the land. This institution, having 
ample means in all its provisions and appliances, will be commensurate with and 
equal to all the demands of modern education, whether of science or art, of liberal 
or professional instruction. It is open to the youth of both sexes, tuition free. 
Surely the liberality of Texas towards the rising generation must commend itself 
to those in distant States seeking new homes for themselves and educational, 
advantages for their children." 



ARKANSAS. 



The State of Arkansas lies between jjarallels 33° and 3G° 30' north latitude, 
while the extreme limits east and west are 89° 40' and 94° 42' west longitude. It 
covers altogether 53,850 square miles, including about 805 miles of water surface, 
and is divided into 74 counties, whose land areas vary in size from 490 to 1,100 
square miles. Nearly the entire surface of the State is well timbered with a large 
variety of growth. 

Arkansas is nearly as large as the imperial State of Illinois, the latter having 
56,650 square miles and 36,256,008 acres. Doubtless the reader will be surprised 
that the area of Arkansas exceeds either that of New York or Pennsylvania; but 
the population and wealth of these have so long dominated the statistics of the 
countrj^ that we are apt to confound these with area of territory. 

The State of Arkansas, with much of the richest soil of the continent, her 
superb river sj^stem, her minerals, her vast virgin and most valuable forests, her 
climate, and her immense area, will soon be a State of great weight in tlie great 
federation of the Western World. 

The only place of 4,000 population and over at last United States Census 
(1880) was Little Rock, the capital, in Pulaski County. The number was 13,138. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

The Mississippi River borders the State on the east, its broad bottom lands 
on the north reaching far westward from the river, some 60 miles, to the foot of 
Crowley's Ridge, bej^ond the St. Francis River, On the south these lands are 
narrower, and near the Louisiana line tiicy are interspersed with ridges and 
upland peninsulas. Crowley's Ridge is one of the most prominent features in 
this region. Lying between the White and the Mississippi Rivers, this ridge, 
extending from the extreme northeastern part of the State southward to Helena, 
in Phillips County, with an elevation of from 100 to 150 feet, forms a sudden ter- 
mination to the low swamps of the Mississippi and St. Francis bottoms; but this 
elevation rapidly diminishes w^estward, with flat lands, prairies and low sandy 
ridges, to White River, at the border of the hilly and mountaijious region of 
Koithern Arkansas and the prairies of the South. Another broad alluvial region, 
bordering the Arkansas River on the north side, extends from near Little Rock 
(on the line of the rocky and hilly region) southeastwaid, and, embracing all the 
country lying between the river and Bayou Meta, becomes again narrow at the 
junction of the two streams. Its width in one place is said to be as much as 30 
miles, and the region presents very much the same features as that of the Missis- 
sippi. Broad alluvial bottom lands also border that portion of the Red River 
embraced in this State, and the soutluin jiortion of Ouachita County, near the 
State line. 

A view of the State northward from the line of Louisiana to Missouri pre- 
.sents the following general topograi)hical features in addition to those already 
given: Along the southern border the country is undulating and somewiiat hilly, 
iind is timbered with a prominent growth of short-leaf pine, with oak and hick- 



358 ARKANSAS. 

ory — the continuation of the tertiary yellow-loam region of Louisiana and Texas. 
Northward tlie surface becomes more and more hilly, and is interspersed with red 
lands and tertiary iron-ore liills. On the northeast of these, after passing the 
wide bottom plain lying between the Arkansas River and Bayou Meta, we reach 
a large area of silty prairies, which separate this region from the Mississippi 
alluvial and Crowley's Ridge regions; while on the southwest there is a region, 
interspersed with small black cretaceous prairies, which occupies the lowdands 
along the streams and at tlie foot of tlie pine ridges. The line marking tlie limit 
of this pine-hill country would pass from near Des Arc, on White River, in 
Prairie County, nearly westward to Lilth; Rock; thence southwest to Arkadel- 
phia, in Clark County, and westward through the middle of Sevier County into 
the Indian Territory. 

Northward from this liue we enter upon a hilly and broken country, Avith a 
few ranges of high hills and mountains composed of sandstones and mill-stone 
grit, the valley lands being derived from the associated red shales. The surface 
of the coiuitry is M'cil timbered with oak and hickory as lar north as the range of 
mountains Ijing between Polk and Scott Counties on the west. Open and level 
prairies are found interspersed throughout the region northward to the Arkansas 
River, in the counties of Scott, Sebastian, Logan and Yell, but occur chiefly in 
the first two. North of the river, after passing a timbered belt of country similar 
to that on the south, we reach the Ozark Mountain region of high hills and ridges, 
which increase in altitude from but a few hundred feet on the south to l.COOor 
1,500 feet above the general level of the country on the northwest, wdiere they 
leave the State. This country is well timbered with a great variety of g^-owth, 
except on some of the highest ridges, where the poor sandy and cherty soil will 
support little else than grasses, weeds and stunted oaks. Little or no limestono: 
has been observed southward from tlie Louisiana line to these mountains, but it 
now appears at the foot and on the sides of the hills, producing lands of riclmess 
and fertility. The hilly and broken character of the country continues to the 
Missouri line, and in the extreme northern tier of counties we find a region of 
cherty limestone hills and small open prairies and barrens, the latter having often 
a soil rich in potash, lime and phosphoric acid. In the middle of this region the 
prairies are less extensive than on the extreme w'cst, where, in Benton County, 
they open out into the broad and more level prairie region of the Indian Terri- 
tory. The hills are from 400 to 600 feet high, and are largely timbeicd Avith pine^ 
and other growth, except in phices where the soil is too lliin for anytliing elsa 

than scrub oaks. 

CLIMATE. 

The records of the Smithsonian Institution for a period of many years, as 
summed up in the Smithsonian Contribution to Knowledge, Vol. XXI, place the 
annual mean temperature of that part of the State lying south of the Ozark 
Mountains (or a line from the junction of White and Black Rivers, in Independ- 
ence County, westward to Fayetteville, in Washington County) at from 60° to 64°, 
and thence to the Missouri line at 56° F. For the winter months during this time 
the average temperature in the northern counties was from 28° to 40°, and in the 
Bouthern counties from 40° to 52°. The annual mean at Helena, in Phillips 
County, w^as 01.1°; at Little Rock, 62.3°; Fort Smith, 60.1°, and at Washington, 
on the southwest, 61.5°. For the summer mcntlis the mean temperature for the 
time mentioned was from 70° to 80° over all of the State, except in the extreme 
southeastern counties, where the mean was from 80° to 88°. July is generally the 
hottest month, the thermometer sometimes rising as high as 100°. The nights are 
said to begin to grow cool about the middle of August, and the first "black" frost 
appears about the last of October. 



ARKANSAS. 359 

KALNFALL. 

The prevailing winds are from the south, and, charged as they are with the 
Tapors of the gulf, we find the greatest condensation or rainfall in the southern 
half of the State. As the result of many years of observation, the following facts 
have been brought out by Mr. Schott in a late publication of the Smithsonian 
Institution: The average number of rainy days in each year for 15 years has 
been 75. The highest annual rainfall occurs in the southwestern counties, and 
averages 56 inches. From Louisiana northward to a limit marked by a line from 
the northeastern corner in Mississippi County to tlie lower part of Sebastian 
County, on the west, an average of from 44 to 53 inches falls yeai-ly, while north- 
ward over the rest of the State a 38-incli fall is reported. 

During the winter months the greatest fall (16 inches) occurred in the south- 
western counties and along the Mississippi River from the nuuith of the Arkansas 
River northward to Cross and Crittenden Counties. There was a fall of 13 to 15 
inches in the southeastern region, which may be bounded west by a line from the 
lower part of Poinsett County to Jacksonport, at the bend of White River; 
thence southward with a curve, passing south of Little Rock, west to Mount Ida, 
Montgomery County, and south to Red River. Over the rest of the State on the 
north and west the rainfall for the winter was from six to eight inclies. These 
estimates include the snow that falls during these months, sometimes to a depth 
of several inches. During the spring months the southern counties were favored 
with over 15 inches of rain, wliile north of a line from Sevier County to Little 
Rock, Ark., and Memphis, Tenn., the fall was from 13 to 15 inches, except on the 
extreme northwest, where it was less than 13 inches. 

During the summer months the rainfall was more evenly distributed over the 
State, and averaged from 10 to 14 inches, a maximum of 18 inches occurring at 
Helena, in Phillips Count)'-, on the Mississippi River, and a minimum of less than 
10 inches in the northwestern counties of the State. The autumn months were 
drier, the heaviest rains, more than 13 inches, occurring along the Red River, on 
the southwest. From 10 to 13 inches was reported over the rest of the State, 
except on the northwest and in the St. Francis bottom lands, on the northeast, 
where it was less than 10 inches. 

DRAINAGE. 

Apart from the Mississippi and St. Francis Rivers on the east and northeast, 
the northern part of the State is drained by White River, the middle by the 
Arkansas, the south by the Ouachita, and the southwest by Red River. 

Arkansas River, which is next in size to the Mississippi, divides the State 
into two almost equal parts. Entering on the west from the Indian Territory, its 
course is very irregular, at first mostly eastward, and then, turning to the south- 
east, its waters flow into the Mississippi in Desha County. Its basin, covering an 
area of 11,370 square miles, is bounded on the north by the Ozark Mountains, and 
has an average width of from 20 to 30 miles. On the south its width along the 
line of the Indian Territory is about 50 miles, bounded by the range of Rich and 
Fourche La Fave Mountains, which have an east and west trend, and approach 
near the river in Perry County. Thence southeastward the river basin becomes 
quite narrow, its soutliern rim lying very near the river. 

White River is the most important stream in the northern part of Arkansas, 
draining, Avith its tributaries, about 17,400 square miles — an area greater than that 
of any other river within the State. This river rises in the southern part of 
Washington County, flows northward into Missouri, whence it soon turns south- 
eastwi'.rd to the lowlands of the Mississippi River, where, after its junction with 
the waters of the Blac k River from the north, it continues southward, and unites 
with the Arkansas River near its junction with the Mississippi. 



360 ARKANSAS. 

The Ouachita River basin iucludes very nearly the entire country soutli of 
the Arkansas basin — an area of about 11,800 square miles; while that of Red 
River, on the southwest, has only an area of about 4,500 square miles. 

The other principal rivers are the St. Francis, Little Missouri, Black, Little 
Red, Moro and Bayou Bartholomew. 

It is claimed that there are between five and six thousand miles of navigable 
water in the State. 

Many streams are beautifully pure and clear and never failing, and almost 
everywhere line fish are found. Shad are found in the Ouachita, and bass, pick- 
erel, wall-eyed pike, silver perch, cat and buff.ilo are common. 

Of course, springs are exceedingly numerous, some of them of wondrous 
beauty and in most charming scenery. One, the Mammoth Spring, in Fulton 
County, is 70 feet deep, 190 feet in diameter, and flowing a volume of 65,000 cubic 
feet of water per minute. It is said to be one of the most remarkable springs in 
the world. 

No locality on earth is more famous than Arkansas for springs. At the city 
of Hot Springs are the renowned si)rings of that name, so wonderfully curative 
of so many diseases. There are between 7 > and 80 springs there. 

At the Eureka Springs there are over 40. These springs are wonderful in 
restoring sight. 

It follows, of course, with such wonderful streams, that Arkansas is not only 
most remarkabl}^ well watered, but that there is a vast deal of water-power in the 
State. According to the best information, this is estimated at 1,500,000 horse- 
power. To mention one or two, there is a superb water-power at the falls of the 
Ouachita, near Rockport; then there is Mammoth Spring, above mentioned. It 
is said that for 45 miles of Spring River there is to be found for every half mile 
1,000 horse-power. The fall of the river for the first mile is 22 feet ; 126 feet fall 
in 10 miles, and in 17 miles, 153 feet. The flow of water is not affected by drouth 
or long continued rain, and for 12 miles on either side there are no obstructions 
of any kind to interfere with putting in machinery. Of course, Arkansas, in 
common with many of the Southern States, has her streams unobstructed by ice 

all winter. 

GEOLOGY. 

The oldest occurring rocks of the State are probably those of the Lower 
Silurian age in the northern counties, embracing a few outcrops of the Potsdam 
sandstone and large areas of later cherty magnesian limestones. With a broad 
base resting against Black River north of its junction with White River, covered 
eastward by quarternary deposits, the triangular area of this formation extends 
westward, with narrowing limits in this State, until it passes out near the western 
boundary. Dipping toward the south, it is overlaid by the sub-carboniferous 
Archimedes limestones, chert and sandstones, which form the southern border of 
the Ozark Mountains in the northern portions of Stone, Searcy, Newton, Madison 
and Carroll Counties. So far as known, the Upper Silurian and the Devonian 
formations are not represented in the State, except perhaps in very small areas. 
A southern dip carries the sub-carboniferous under the coal measures, which con- 
stitute the most extensively developed geological region in the State. This is 
represented by the sandstones and red shales of the millstone grit, which form 
the hills and high ridges, its shales also underlying much of the valley land. 
Coal beds appear in many of the counties. The rock strata are generally regular, 
except in the lower part of the region, where the effects of granitic disturbance 
are seen in upturnings and contortions and the presence of many mineral veins. 

The next older formation represented is the cretaceous, and this occurs in the 
southwestern part of the State. It enters the State from tlie Indian Territory 



ARKANSAS. 361 

with a width of about 30 miles, reaching from Ultima Thule, in Sevier County, to 
Red River, but gradually narrows eastward to a point at Arkadelphia, on the 
Ouachita River, in Clark County. Characteristic fossils of this formation are 
abundant in localities, and are probably of the rotten limestone group. This is 
the northeastern termination of the great cretaceous belt, that, extending west- 
ward through the southern part of the Indian Territory, turns southward through 
the central part of Texas to the southern foot of the tuble-lands and the Llano 
Estacado, which are also but a continuation of the same formation northwestward 
into New Mexico. 

The black, waxy and open prairies that form so prominent a feature of the 
formation elsewhere, are in this State found only in small patches in the lowlands, 
the formation being covered in the uplands by the quarternary sands and clays, 
which form hills bearing a short-leaf pine and other timber growth. Salt-licks 
are a feature of the cretaceous lands of this State, especially in Sevier County (as 
well as of Louisiana). 

During or inunediately after the cretaceous period there seems to have 
occurred a great disturbance or upheaval, bringing to the surface the granitic 
and metamorphic rocks which cover large areas of country in Saline and Pulaski 
Counties, with also a small outcrop in Hempstead County. At the same time the 
shales and sandstones of the region southwestward, in Garland, Hot Spring, Pike, 
Polk, and the northern portion of Sevier Counties, were upturned, contorted, and, 
in some instances, broken and altered. 

On the northwest of Little Rock the continuation of the line of disturbance 
is observed in the upturned or folded strata of the Ozark Mountains, which pass 
into Missouri from Carroll County. Argentiferous galena ores, in veins, are an 
accompaniment of this formation in Arkansas, tlie Kellogg silver mines, a few 
miles north of Little Rock, being the most noted occurrence. Novaculile (whet- 
stone) and sandstone, filled with crystals of quailz, are among the most commonly 
occurring metamorphic rocks, the former being found in abundance chiefly around 
the celebrated Hot Springs, in Garland County. 

The tertiary formation is represented in this State only by the marl beds and 
limestones of the eocene, which extends southward into Louisiana. Marl beds, 
with characteristic tertiary fossils, occur at the foot of Crowley's Ridge, in St. 
Francis County, and also in the counties lying south of Little Rock. Thick and 
extensive beds of lignite are said to be found in Ashley, Union, Bradley and Cal- 
houn Counties, exposed in the banks of the streams. The tertiary is all overlaid 
by beds of quarternary sands, pebbles and clays, which, by erosion, have been left 
as irregular hills and ridges, capped with ferruginous sandstone formed from these 
materials. Crowley's Ridge, which forms so prominent a feature of the country 
lying between the Mississippi and the White Rivers, is made up almost entirely 
of the material of this last group nearly to its entire height of from 100 to 150 
feet, and throughout nearly the whole of its length, from the chalk bluffs of St. 
Francis River, in the extreme northeastern corner of the State, to Helena, on the 
Mississippi River, it is underlaid by Silurian and carboniferous beds on the north, 
and by tertiary marls and limestones on the south. 

AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. 

The lands of the State may be grouped in two grand divisions, separated by 
a line from the western part of Clay County, on the northeast, along Black and 
White Rivers to Des Arc, in Prairie County, and thence to Little Rock and Arka- 
delpliia, on the southwest ; thence west to Uitin.a Thule, on the line of the Indian 
Territory, in Sevier County. Westward. and northward of this line lie the rocky, 
iiilly and mountainous lands, or "up country;" but on the east and south the 



362 ARKANSAS. 

lands aie more gcncrjilly rolling, or level, sandy, and sometimes gravelly in char- 
acter, and almost entirely free from rocks on the surface, excepting some scattered 
pieces of ferruginous sandstone. Tliis southern region also includes those river 
alluvial lands whose extensive areas make them of great agricultural value, 

SOILS. 

It seems almost superfluous to say much about the fertility of Arkansas soils. 
Numerous analyses might be given to show how rich they are. She divides 
honors with Mississippi and Louisiana in having considerable of the Mississippi 
bottom lands, and surely that is enough panegyric on the score of fertilit}^ ; and 
the Arkansas and Red River lands are very fertile. Cotton from Arkansas took 
the prize at the Atlanta Exposition in 1831, the Louisville Exposition in 1H83, at 
the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition at New Orleans, La., in 
1885. The cotton taking the premium was raised in Chicot County. " It is one 
of a group of three counties in adjoining States, and also adjoining each other, 
(East Carroll, of Louisiana; Chicot, of Arkansas, and Issaquena, of Mississippi,) 
that form the center of maximum cotton production per acre on natural soils in 
the United States, and ])robably in the world." 

Dr. David Dale Owen, an eminent authority, says: "A comparison of 
Arkansas soils, so far as made with a few soils collected in Iowa, Wisconsin and 
Minnesota, shoAVS that her soils generally are equally rich in fertilizing ingre- 
dients with those of the said States, and that her bottom lands are, in truth, 
richer." 

At the Atlanta Exposition in 1881 Arkansas received the first premium for 
com and cotton, competing with all the States, including Kansas. Every on(! 
conversant with expositions knows liow Kansas competes in agricultural ])ro- 
ducts. Arkansas a'so received the sweepstake premium at the World's Industrial 
and Cotton Centennial Exposition at New Orleans. 

Recently, at the Tri-State Fair, Toledo, Ohio, (embracing portions of Ohio, 
Indiana and Michigan,) a collection of grains, fruits, &c., fi'om the line of the Foit 
Smith Railroad was awarded a diploma for the best display of com and fruit, over 
all competitors. 

The geographical position of Arkansas is such that, with her topograph}^ she 
produces a wonderful variety of crops. With an altitude of nearly 3,000 feet 
above the level of the Gulf of Mexico, and neaily three and a half degrees of 
latitude, she yields the products of nearly ten ilegrees. Thei-e can be produced 
the buckwheat of New England and the rice of South Carolina; the coin of 
Iowa or Illinois — only better — and the sugar-cane of Louisiana; the wheat of 
Minnesota and the spelts of Germany; the flax and hemp of Europe and her own 
unsurpassed cotton; the fig of the semi-tropics and the apple of the temperate 
zone; rye, barley and oats as good as anj^where, and the last pre-eminently; 
clovers, red top, timothy, orchard grass, and other favored grasses of the North 
and West, equal if not superior to those of the latter two areas, and many grasses 
these cannot produce; superb Irish and sweet potatoes, turnips, cabbage, beets, 
peas, beans, onions, radish, celery, oyster-plant, egg-plant, squash, pumpkin, okra, 
lettuce, tomatoes, etc.; melons of most delicious quality and great size — even, 
becoming celebrated for these; tobacco, hops ; fruits away beyond enumeration — 
hereafter touched upon. What an array of products is this only cursory enumer- 
ation ! There the grasshopper and locust come not ; the potato-bug is unknown, 
and the chinch-bug almost a stranger. The textile fabrics — silk, cotton, wool, 
mohair, flax, hemp, jute, ramie — can all be produced there, and can nearly all, if 
not quite, be shown. All the comforts and luxm-ies needed can be raised in the 
State. 



ARKANSAS. 3(55 

In general terms, it may be stated that the length of the planting season is 
fi-om the middle of February to June 1st — an advantage much of the {South 
enjoj^s. Garden crops are planted early — potatoes and peas often in February, 
and others in March. Vegetables are plenty in market in April, and late until 
Christmas. Gardens are made both winter and fall. The rains in spring are 
generally seasonable and pi'opitious. Early vegetables marketed in St. Louis, 
Mo., and Chicago, 111., mainly. Two crops of many vegetables are easy and 
common. Oats, rye, barley and wheat are sowed in the fall. Two crops of buck- 
wheat per annum can be made. 

FRUITS. 

There can be no doubt that Arkansas is adapted to a wide range of fruits, 
and produces man}' of rare excellence. The laurels won by her at the recent dis- 
play at New Orleans, where the greatest fruit exhibition the world ever saw was 
made, attest this. The first grand premium of gold medal and $^03 were accorded 
her, and this was tlie result, largely, of one man's exhibition — Mr. E. F. Babcock. 
No horticulturist who saw the display could but be enthused. Ilcr apples, par- 
ticularly, M'ere indescribable. The Arkansas Valley seems to be conspicuous as 
an apple region. In the display spoken of there were 135 varieties of apples and 
350 varieties of other fruits — peaches, pears, grapes, berries, etc. 

Arkansas can grow proba' ly 200 varieties of graj)es. The vine flourishes in 
parts of the State, growing to almost incredible proportions. In her mountains 
some day will probably be great revelations in the products of her vineyards yet 
to be. These mountains run east and west, and protect from strong and sudden 
cold winds, and the soils seem especially adapted to the grape. Some vineyards 
have reached the size of 15 a«res. 

The strawberry business is well advanced. Judsonia, Cabot, Beebe, Austin's 
Station and Malvern are prominent points. Judsonia shipped in 1884 from 250 
acjes of this fruit; this year, 1885, from 300 acres. There are nearly or quite 
2,000 acres in fruits and vegetables there. Last April there were estimated to be 
at Austin's Station over 20O acres strawberries, 23 acres raspberries, blackberries 
13 acres, gooseberries 4 acres, grapes 18 acres, plums 43 acres, pears 7 acres, 
peaches 229 acres, apples 95 acres, cherries 8 acres — nearly 600 acres in fruit 
at this one station. Whortleberries figure amcnig the shipments from Cabot. 
Benton has for a number of years shipped the first strawberries — early in April. 
It is in Saline County. 

In justice to the railroads it should be said that they are offering inducements 
to fruit growing in rates and cars especially adapted to carriage of fruits. 

Arkansas has some large peach orchards and produces superb peaches. This 
fruit shows immense size there in some seasons, and always a long season. Near 
Hot Springs, peaches have been picked as late as November 17. Hon. Thomas 
Essex, Land Commissioner of the St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern Rail- 
road, received peaches this season as early as May 15. Peaches have been raised 
near Conway, Faulkner County, weighing over 22 ounces. Apples and pears 
weighing over 21 ounces are by no means rare, raised in the State, and the former 
fruit is sometimes seen over 15 inches in circumference. 

The melon and vegetable business is growing to considerable dimensions in 
the State. 

Some progress has been made in canning fruit in the State. This ought to 
and must increase, to make fruit raising ultimately profitable; and dcssicating 
establishments for drying both fruits and vegetables should come in vogue. 

The profits in trucking and fruit raising are claimed to be great; but every- 
where the day of fortunes in a j'ear have gone by in these lines. 



364 ARKANSAS. 

The markets are St. Louis and towns and cities further north and east. The 
first fruit train ever run out of the State was started from Little Rock, Ark., on 
May 12, 1884, to St. Louis, Mo. 

STOCK RAISING. 

A finely watered country very naturally suggests stock raising, particularly 
where rich soil and the success of the most prized grasses are superadded. 

The country north of the Arkansas River is a beautiful variation of hill, 
plain, prairie and woodland. It aflbrds a fine stock range, particularly for sheep. 
In the mountains, hill country and bottoms, there grow, in the aggregate, accord- 
ing to Lesquereux, 155 native grasses. 

The bottoms (and how many there are!) abound in vast canebrakes. These 
grasses will keep cattle fat summer and winter. Every one wdio has had any 
experience knows how fat cattle will keep on cane the year round; and sheep will 
live on it, although it does not appear much out of bottoms. 

The " mast" of the bottoms makes Arkansas certainly equal, if not superior, 
to any State for hog raising. The bottoms contain pecans, hickories, oaks, beech 
and other mast-making trees, and are particularly rich in these nut trees. Then, 
it should not be forgotten that the dense forests of the bottoms afford protection 
from the very little cold wind to which winter subjects the State. Then, the trend 
of her mountains breaks off the high cold winds j^revailing north of them, and 
thereb}'-, with their latitude and elevation, produce a very remarkable climate. 

But, native grasses and cane aside, there is no trouble with the popular culti- 
vated grasses. Arkansas had an exhibit at the World's Industrial and Cotton 
Centennial Exposition last year. There was clovt'r to be seen from 3^ to 7 feet 
long, taken from fields that produced from 2^ to 4 tons per acre ; there wt.s timo- 
thy from 4 to 4| feet long, with many heads 10^ inches long; there were fine 
alfalfa and red top, too. In the land ofilce at Little Rock, samples of clover 7 feet 
long, and of timothy 5, can be found. Kentucky blue-grass, orchard grass, white 
clover, Johnson grass, Texas blue-grass, and California or Burr clover, have all 
been successfully tried. As to lespedcza (Japan clover) and Bermuda grass, as a 
matter of course, they are all that could be asked. 

Pray, why should any one doubt that cultivated grasses (who knows anything 
•of the South) would succeed? And is it not easy to see that, with rainfall, soils 
of almost incredible and inexhaustible fertilit}', and the most bountifully and 
beautifully watered country almost anywhere, Arkansas can be made an ideal 
stock-raising country? And Arkansas is beginning to see her opening as a stock- 
raising State, and is doing something (fiir too little) in that line. As a fact to be 
mentioned, very few people feed their stock in winter, except working animals. 

Arkansas is marked by three belts of rainfall in the chart in the last census 
denoting the annual rainfall of the country. The lowest rainfall is ample for all 
needs, and what is well worth remembering is that in the area of lowest rainfall 
of spring and summer the precipitation is 20 to 2~) inches per annum. This well 
bears out the language of another volume of the census, where, in comparing the 
summer and winter rainfall, it is said: "During the summer months the rainfall 
was more evenly distributed over the State." The crop-maker and the stock- 
raiser will appreciate the benefits of this summer rainfall. 

TIMBER. 

The following on this topic is from the report of the last census : 
Heavy forests cover the State of Arkansas, with the exception of a few iso- 
lated prairies principally confined to Prairie and Arkansas Counties, north of the 
valley of the Arkansas River, and the western borders of the State. North of the 
Arkansas River the forests are mostly composed of the deciduous trees of the 



ARKANSAS. 365^ 

Mississippi basin, through which isolated belts occur, often of considerable extent, 
in which the short-leaved pine, the only species found in Northern Arkansas, is 
mixed with the hard woods. The southwestern part of the State south of the 
Arkansas River and west of the broad, level plain of the Mississippi is covered 
outside the river-bottom lands with an almost continuous forest of pine, in which 
the short-leaved species occupies the high, dry ridges, and the loblolly the moist 
soil above the bottoms. Great bodies of cypress cover the extensive swamps that 
stretch along the eastern border of the State or line the bottoms of the White, 
Arkansas, Washita and Red Rivers. The hard-wood forests of the State are 
hardly surpassed in variety and richness, and contain inestimable bodies of the 
finest oak, walnut, hickory and ash timber. Black walnut of large size is still 
widely scattered over the State, and is particularly abundant in the valley of the 
Red and other Southern rivers. The pine forests are almost intact. Settlements 
made for agricultural purposes have been confined to bottom lands, and only 
during the last few years has pine lumber been manufactured in the State, except 
to supply a very limited local demand. Recently, however, comparatively small 
quantities of lumber manufactured at numerous railroad mills, principally estab- 
lished south of the Arkansas River, have been shipped north and south out of 
the State. 

The forests of Arkansas have received comparatively little damage from fire. 
Pine generally succeeds pine, even on burned land, although upon certain gravel 
and clay soils the second growth is largely composed of black and red oaks, or, in 
the southern part of the State, the sweet gum replaces other trees on bottom 
lands. During the census year 858,115 acres of woodland were reported devas- 
tated by fire, with an estimated loss of $259,470. The largest number of these 
fires was due to the carelessness of farmers in clearing land, or to hunters camp- 
ing in the forest. 

Industries consuming hard woods are still in their infancy in Arkansas, 
although doubtless destined to attain an important development. Rough white- 
oak staves are largely manufactured in the White River country and in the north- 
eastern part of the State for Eastern and European markets. 

A considerable traffic exists in the southwestern counties in the wood of the 

Osage orange, used for wheel stock, and more recently as pavement in St. Louis 

and other Northern cities. 

MINERALS. 

The mineral resources of the State are a comparatively " sealed book," because 
this State has been so impolitic and remiss in not having had long ere this a 
thorough geological survey of the State. Other Southern States have been wiser, 
and millions of dollars have been invested in mines and industries cognate, until 
industrial revolutions have been achieved in them, and enduring advertisements 
of their resources. Perhaps no better proof of the impolicy of not having had a 
geological survey of the State can be shown than by the silence of so large and 
special a work as the volume (X) of the last United States Census so largely 
devoted to "Building Stones" (a special report, too,) as to Arkansas in this 
respect, when the State has some beautiful marbles and some fine limestones. 
And Williams, in the body of his work on the " Mineral Resources of the United 
State," for 1883, a most valuable and authoritative work, has nothing to say of 
fire-clays in the State; and John C. Smock, who proves such a careful enumer- 
ator, mentions only one county as containing it, whereas it is highly probable that 
these are abundant in the extensive coal measures of the State. But the State, 
although it has lost such valuable opportunities of gratuitously advertising itself, 
is winning its way to public attention in spite of the derelictness of public senti- 
ment, and because of the revelations made by the most shallow and Intermittent 



366 ARKANSAS. 

exploitations of the truly vvouderful mineral resources of the State. This prefa- 
toriness is both explanatory and apologetic. The reader should know that exten- 
sive and scientific information is not accessible in the premises. 

COAL. 

The coal area is estimated at " 12,000 square miles, in 12 counties," in the 
language of Williams in "Mineral Resources of the United States," issued in 
1884. Whether future investigations shall enlarge this cannot be told. Nor is 
the thickness known ; but estimating only at superlicial area, there are only a few 
States surpassing Arkansas in this regard, Kentucky has 14,000 square miles, an 
area of most su[)erb coking coal having been recently discovered. West Virginia 
has an area of 10,000 scjuure miles. Pennsylvania has 12,770 square miles of coal 
of all kinds. The great State of Ohio is next to xVrkansas, with 10,000 square 
miles, according to the best information obtainable. Indiana has 6,450. Illinois, 
Kansas and ]Missouri rank higher than any j^et stated. All the other States, when 
possessing coal, are for below Arkansas in area. 

It will be seen how important it is that something more specific could be 
given, and many will be surprised to learn of the mineral resources of this State, 
which are so great, and yet so little knoAvn. 

In general terms, a mineralogist holds this language : 

" The extent and area of the coal-bearing strata have been generally ascer- 
tained. Those districts have been pointed out which are most likely to afibrd 
lead ore. Numerous iron regions have been discovered. Wide belts of country 
have been indicated where marble prevails. Sources have been pointed out where 
the best limestone can be procured for lime, for hydraulic cement, for mineral fer- 
tilizers. Though I have not myself seen one particle of gold, I have no reason to 
disbelieve the statement of others. Yet, if no gold should be found profitable to 
work, there are resources of the Slate in acres of zinc, manganese, iron, lead and 
copper, whet and hone stones, rock-crystals, paint and nitre earths, kaolin, granite, 
freestone, limestone-marks, grindstones and slate, which may well justify the 
asserti(m that Arkansas is destined to rank as one of the richest mineral States in 
the Union. Her zinc ores compare favorably with those of Silesia, and the argen- 
tiferous galena far exceeds in percentage of silver the average of such ores of 
other countries. Her novaculite rock cannot be excelled in fineness of texture, 
beauty of color and sharpness of grit. Her crystal mountains stand unrivaled for 
extent, and their products are equal in brilliancy and transparency to any in the 
world." 

To return to "Mineral Resources of the United States:" 

" The coal found is semi-bituminous or semi-anthracite. A bed of semi-bitu- 
minous coal 9 feet thick is reported in Sebastian County. The Spadra semi- 
anthracite is the only coal that is known in market to any extent, and an account 
of its location, etc., will prove interesting: 'This name is given to a deposit of 
semi-anthracite coal 3 feet thick found at Spadra, in Johnson County, 105 miles 
from Little Rock, now being worked by the Spadra Coal and Iron Company. It 
lies almost horizontal, with a slight dip to the north. It crops out on the river 
bank and is traceable along the river front. On digging anywhere the same vein, 
from 3i to 4 feet thick, is invariably struck within 55 feet of the level of the river 
front. The product is about 5,000 tons. The existence of a second vein, which 
is, as near as can be ascertained, about 30 feet below the one now working, is a 
matter of development. The coal can be placed at Little Rock at $3.25 a ton ; at 
the mouth of the Arkansas River, $3.75 a ton; at New Orleans, $5 a ton; at St. 
Xiouis, $6.75 per ton,' 

" The only coal to compete with on the lower Mississippi, from the mouth of 
ihe Arkansas to New Orleans — 600 miles — which section of country consumes 



ARKANSAS. 867 

about one million of tons per annum, is the bituminous coal principally furnished 
by Pittsburgh. 

"The mines of the Ouita Coal Company, producing an excellent variety of 
this semi-anthracite, ;iie 72 miles from Little Rock. The vein is 32 inches thick. 
Analysis gave 80.46 fixed carbon, 12.66 volatile matter; ash, 5.11 ; water. 1.77; 
color of ash, light brown. 

"Professor Owen gives an analysis of the coal in the First Geological Report 
on Arkansas, page 180. It was also analyzed by Mr. I. A. Liebig and by .Mr. L. 
C. Bierwirth, with the following results: 

OWEN. LIEBIG. BIHKWIKTll. 

?f°/^^"'-^--; ••••••. O.S 1.524 0.680 

Volaule and combustible gases 7.9 y.j^^ ^^^ 

Fixed carbon 85.6 Ss-Jsi 83.719 

^"^" 6.0 _£.468 1.080 

;; Total.... ,00. ^ '^, 

Specific gravity ,.335 ^.g^^g 1.31.2 

Saward, in " The Coal Trade" for 1384, has this to say: 

"The coal region where it enters Arkansas is about 60 miles in width north 
and south, 25 miles north and 35 miles south of Fort Smith— that is, 25 miles on 
north side of the Arkansas River and 35 miles on south side of Arkansas River. 
The outcrops or openings, that are 4 feet to 7 feet thick, are nearly all on the 
south Bide of the river, in Sebastian County, and are 12 to 18 miles wide cast and 
^vest, and 30 to 35 miles north and south; thence east, on south side of the 
Arkansas, they decrease in thickness for 80 miles or such a matter, and are lost at 
-()]• east of Dardanelle. 

"On the north side of the river the coal so for does not show a thickness of 
over a foot or two until you reach Ozark, 30 miles from the west line of the State. 
There it approximates 4 feet, and 20 miles east of that, at Spadra, it is 2 feet 6 or 
8 inches, and becomes thinner 20 miles east of that, say at Ouita, where it is only 
20 inches, and runs out at 100 to 120 miles east from the Indian border, on the 
north side of the river. It will be seen that its thickness (from 4 to 7 feet, and, 
indeed, it may be found 10 feet in Sebastian County) continually decreases east to 
a shell; and its width of 60 miles at the west side of the State becomes less 
toward the east, and tapers like a lady's hand to near the middle of the State." 

From a respected authority— a pamphlet issued under the auspices of The 
Arkansas Valley Route— I quote as follows: 

''This coal is similar in structure to the Ly ken's Valley coal of Pennsylvania, 
amd its quality, by analysis, is very similar to that famous article of fuel, and it is 
an excellent steam and manufacturing coal. The Arkansas River runs 'for more 
than 150 miles through this coal formation." 

Arkansas coal is now used by "The Arkansas Valley Route" lines and the 
'^Frisco "Railroad, A branch line has been built from the main line of the Fort 
:Smith Railroad to the principal mines, which facilitates the " output." 

The Johnson County coal is used at St. Louis, Mo., and has recently been 
introduced into New Orleans by rail. The coal can be brought by river to New 
Orleans, and there ought to be a great business in it. 

IRON. 

This metal is found in several counties. Exploitation is demanded and would 
richly remunerate. I shall only specify one county, because of the meagreness of 
such information as is desirable. 

Blow-up Mountain, in Polk County, is said to be a vast deposit of brown 
hematite ore. This analysis is imputed to Prof. Charles E. Wait, of the School 
of Mines of Missouri : 



368 ARKANSAS. 

Silica .2j 

Ferric oxide .*. 83.94 

Alumina 2.43 

Lime ,94 

Magnesia .01 

Phosphorus .08 

Water 12.24 

99.87 
Metallic iron. . . 58.76 

Near by, it is said, are manganese, limestone and good coking coal. If so,, 
here should be steel works before long. It is off tlie line of railroad. 

In this same county, near the bounda,ry line of Howard County, are found 
immense deposits of the so-called " white iron." It is said to be so pure that 
horse-shoe nails have been forged direct from the ore. Here is an analysis of it 
by Prof Wait: 

Water 9-94 

Silica 16.27 

Ferric oxide 69 . 69 

Ferrous oxide i 03 

Alumina , 2 55 

Sulphur .03 

Phosphoric acid trace 

Total 99-51 

It will be observed that it is essentially a very silous hydrated oxide of iron, 

limonite, containing 49.58 per cent, of metallic iron, and of easy reduction. 

Another assay made in the United States Assay Office (branch mint) at Char 

lotte, K. C, gave a large proportion of oxide of manganese. 

Magnetite, specular, carbonate and limonite are found in the State. 

SLATE. 

A very fine roofing slate has recently been found 15 miles west of Little Rock, 
and the purchaser will open a quarry. 

ANTIMONY. 

In a pamphlet entitled " The Antimony Deposits of Arkansas," by Chas. E. 
Wait, C.E., M.E., director of the School of Mines, Missouri State University, it 
is said : " This is one of the few localities in the United States where antimony is 
found in workable quantities. I say workable quantities, because two different 
shipments of ore have been made to English reduction works, and in both cases 
excellent returns were made " 

Tl :e discovery of these deposits will, it is hoped, give rise to a prosperous and 
remunerative industry at no distant day, and when fully developed they may yield 
ore in sufficient quantity to supply the regulus for the home demand, thus adding 
wealth not only to those interested, but also to the State of Arkansas. 

The Steicart Lode. — '* This is the most extensive deposit of antimony yet found 
in Arkansas. * * * The surface indications in this case were quite interesting. 
The vein has a strike about N. 13° E., with dip nearly vertical. The ore in large 
pieces was exposed to view in several places within the distance of a few hundred 
feet. In many places in this distance the ore and quartz seemed to be a solid mass 
projecting above the ground. 

" Soon after this discovery was made mining operations were commenced. 
The vein was attacked on the surface for several hundred feet, and was removed 
to the depth of 12 feet. Some fine pieces of ore were taken from this open cut. 
One piece of apparently solid stibnite weighing 720 pounds was shipped to Little 
Rock. Other pieces even heavier were raised to the surface. One other piece 
furnished 1,250 pounds select ore." 

A large number of tons of antimonial ore from Arkansas have been shipped 
lo Messrs. Geony, Hallet «& Co., London, Eng., for which it is said they paid about 
|60 per ton. 



ARKAW8AS. 369 

Sevier County claims the largest body of antimony ever before discovered. 

MANGANESE. 

The deposits of manganese in the State are very great and important, not to 
say startling. It is a genuine " find," in mining parlance. Nothing better proves 
this than that " the manganese deposits of Independence County have been 
opened, and large quantities are being shipped to Pittsburgh and other points;" 
and that " the Cambria Iron Works, of Pennsylvania, have made large purchases 
of manganese property in Independence County, which they propose to work on 
an extensive scale ;" and that prominent capitalists and practical men are pur- 
chasing and working mines there. Such facts are their own connllenta^)^ 

It is said that in Polk County there is a vein over 800 feet wide and over 8 
miles long. The following quantitative analysis is attributed to Prof. Charles E, 
Wait, of Missouri: 

Manganese oxide 62 196 

Free oxygen ,. 11-517 

Silica , 2 764 

Water > 8 . 344 

Copper oxide. . . . , , 351 

Alumina and iron oxide, 7 222 

Nickel oxide 3 . 872 

Cobalt oxide i457 

Baryta , 2,297 

Lime 080 

Total. 100. U97 

Prof. Wait says the occurrence of nickel is a matter of special interest. The 
amount present is as large as in some ores which are treated for nickel in con- 
nection with other metals. 

More than a year ago over 100 mining claims were recorded in Independence 
County, and over 4,000 tons of manganese shipped from Batesville 

80APST0NE. 

In Arkansas steatite or soapstone has been found ; it is in Saline County, and 
a Philadelphia company has it in hand. It is found in Pulaski County, too. 

WHETSTONE. 

This stone is said to be equal to the Scotch, and is shipped in large quantity 
to Germany and other European markets. 

KAOLIN. 

This is said to be a very superior aiticle, and is demanded in New Jersey and 
Pennsylvania, 

ALUM. 
It is claimed that alum exists in great quantities in the argillaceous rocks on 
the Alum Fork of the Saline River, in Saline County. 

OTHER MINERALS. 

A most remarkable lithographic stone is found near Batesville. It is quite 
likely that all along the range of the Ozark Mountains, which are thought to be 
spurs of the Rocky Mountains, silver, gold, copper, galena, antimony, granite, 
marble, coal and slate, and other stones and minerals, will all be found in abun- 
dance, as some of them are now. The silver of the State has been for some time 
one of the great sensations in mining circles. The antimony is a witness as to 
silver. 

MANUFACTURING. 

Arkansas is coming more into prominence as a manufacturing area than here- 
tofore. The great increase in lumbering and the constantly increasing production 
of corn and wheat necessarily involve progress in saw and planing mills, wood- 
working establishments, etc., and grist mills. Arkansas ought to be one of the 
greatest States in the Union for manufacturing furniture, agricultural implements, 
woodenware, sash, door and blinds, wagons and carriages, for within her bound- 



370 ARKANSAS. 

aries are the greatest hard-wood treasures almost anywhere to be found in the 
United States, to say nothing of poplar and cypress 

Of course, Arkansas ought to bo a great cotton manufacturing State. Her 
cotton has no superior. Her "water-powers, abundant coal, cheap w^ood, climate, 
plenty and quality of raw material, water for cheap transportation, contiguity to 
the future best markets for the fabrics, etc., etc., all plainly point the way to the 
policy and profitableness of manufacturing cotton 

RAILROADS. 

No State could better dispense with railroads than Arkansas, because of her 
remarkable river system and her number of miles of navigable rivers. Indeed, it 
is likely that this great gift of nature has been a retardation to railroad construc- 
tion in the State, as it has been one great cause why population has been so 
persistent of the great streams. But Arkansas is now very well furnished with 
railroads. 

But there is a view of railroad possibilities for Arkansas ^vhich is new and 
striking — that in the near future she may be a great highway for trans-continental 
travel and traffic. In this day of breathless hurry, in the half-frenzied utilitarian- 
ism of Americanism, the proneness is to short cuts, the aspiration being crystal- 
lized in the phrase "air line.'* Let the reader take a map and glance his eye 
between New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, and the Pacific coast, 
and he wnll see that Arkansas stands right in the track of the nearest Northern 
line across the continent, which Avould be free from obstruction in winter from 
snow and ice. A route is built as far West as Fort Smith, near the Indian Terri- 
tory, and it could be carried on up the valley of the Canadian River away over to 
Los Yegas, New Mexico, or nearly so ; thence, doubtless, a way could be found 
across Arizona to California. This would prove one of the best routes in the 
country, shorter than any of the four trans-continental railroads. A company 
that should put up steel works and make its rails out of the iron and manganese 
abundant along or near the line, with abundant coal, cheapest cross-ties, easy 
grades, would find such a line cheap and profitable. It would be a great outlet 
for Texas cattle, a business ready made and bound to prove enormous, crossing, 
as it would, the "Panhandle." The cotton trade would be large. Cotton and 
woolen factories would spring up ; large iron and steel works would soon appear. 
Furniture, agricultural implement, wagon and carriage factories can nowhere find 
better locations than Arkansas, because there is the finest raAv material and in 
greatest abundance. But such a road would get much of the trans-continental 
travel, in the winter particularly, and ought to get a great deal of trans-conti- 
nental freight. Memphis, already quite a railroad center, would be on the track 
of this great trade. 

It seems to the writer that this scheme will be one of the most eagerly seized 
when capital shall have duly investigated it. Such a road would be placed 
between the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad and the Southern Pacific 
systems for quite a distance, and would open some fine territory. 

LAWS. 

Exemptions. — The homestead law of the State is very liberal. The homestead 
of any married man or head of a family to the value of $2,500, or 160 acres of 
land outside of a city or village, and the homestead in any city or village, not 
over one acre of land and improvements of that value, and one-quarter of an acre 
and improvements without regard to value, are exempted from execution. The 
benefits of this exemption, should the head of the family be removed by death, 
inure to his widow while she remains unmarried ; also to his children during 



ARKANSAS. 37I 

their minority. lu addition to his wearing apparel, the personal property of any 
resident citizen of the State to the value of $500, to be selected by such resident 
18 exempted from sale or execution, or other final process of any court issued for 
the collection of any debt. No taxation for State purposes is allowed beyond 
one per cent. *^ 

mucation.-The Constitution of this State provides that the General Assem- 
bly shall require by law that every child of sufficient mental and physical ability 
shall attend the public school during the period between the ages of 5 and 18 
unless educated by other means, and the Legislature has provided a very efficient 
school law to secure for all the State ample school privileges. The law also pro- 
vides that the white and colored children shall be educated in separate schools 
Section 16 of land in every township, besides certain State funds, are set apart for 
educational purposes. 

_ Besides public schools, there are a large number of private schools, semina- 
ries and colleges, a blind asylum and a deaf mute institute 

Temperance, ProMMHon.-This is a question most warmly agitated in the 
South, generally, and prohibition is making great strides in popular favor The 
fol owmg from a noted lecturer, Mr. Luther Benson, I find in an Arkansas jour- 
nal It IS said to have been written by him to the Indiana Monitor-Journal from 
Arkansas : 

" Searcy, the capital of White County, has no saloon. White County has not 
a saloon. There are in this county 10 little towns; each one of them had two 
saloons, and this, the county seat, eight, making in the county 28 saloons The 
people have voted and petitioned every saloon out of the county, and about 67 
other counties have done the same. This State has local option. They vote by 
counties every two years for or against whiskey. If a majority vote no saloons 
that settles it; but if a county votes for license, then there is another law that 
provides that if a majority of men 21 years old and women 18 years old in three 
miles of a church or school-house will petition the judge not to grant a license 
the law says he shall not. Whiskey has no chance down there." 

GAME. 

Allusion has been made elsewhere to the abundance of fish in the numerous 
waters of the State. In the Mississippi bottom and the western or rougher por- 
tion of the State may be found bear in plenty, and occasionally panther. Deer 
are very abundant in many parts of the State. Squirrels, rabbits, turkeys, ducks 
quail, snipe, woodcock and pigeons furnish sport to the huntsman almost every- 
where. Hardly any State is so inviting to the sportsman. It is, perhaps, the best 
hunting ground east of the Rocky Mountains. 

This faint sketch of the great State of Arkansas is a meagre delineation of 
her claims upon capital, enterprise and immigration. She is great in her area in 
Her quantity of virgin and most fertile soil, in her vast forests of most valuable 
woods, m her quantity and variety of minerals, in her rivers and streams, peerless 
for navigation, teeming with fish, and of prodigal water-power; in her varied cli- 
mate, adapted to such a range of cereals, fruits, vegetables, grasses, textiles, and 
an ample rainfall. There one finds the incomparable advantages of the richest 
soils for production and vast mineral riches in juxtaposition, and water transport- 
ation-a combination so remarkable that it beggars panegyric. The millions of 
laie capital in money centers may here find choicest opportunities in numberiess 
imes. Her cheap lands, and millions liable to homestead, invite the immigrant 
tier location will be apt to be at some day the center of the population and 
greatest enterprises of the United States. She is on the future highway of this 



KENTUCKY. 



The State of Kentucky is situated between latitude 36° 30' and 39° 6' north,, 
and longitude 5° and 12° 38' west from Washington. Her area is 40,000 square 
miles. Tlie surface of the State is an elevated plateau, sloping from the Cumber- 
land Mountains, on the southeast, to the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, on the- 
north and west. On the north the Ohio River is the boundary of the State for 
its whole length from east to v*^est, as it is also, in part, on the west, the Mississippi 
River completing the rest of its western boundary. On the east the Big Sandy- 
River separates the State from West Virginia for the northern area of its eastern 
boundary, and for the balance the line between Kentucky and Virginia follows 
the top of Cumberland Mountain from Cumberland Gup to a point near Crank's 
Gap, about 40 miles to the northeast, where the mountain bends to the eastward 
and extends into Virginia; from this point the line follows the top of the Black 
Mountains until it reaches the Pine Mountain, near Pound Gap. On the south,, 
by an arbitrary line, the State is bounded by the State of Tennessee. 

The reader should not fail to note the fact, the advantages of which may be 
hereafter enlarged upon, of the enormous frontage on navigable rivers of the 
State, enjoying almost as much of the Mississippi River, in tliis regard, as the 
State of Missouri, as much of the Ohio River as the State of Illinois, as much of 
the latter river as the State of Indiana — the river bordering the last State on its 
entire extent from west to east — and half as mucli of the same river as the State' 
of Ohio. The large number of towns in the State of Kentucky enjoying the 
facilities of navigation on these two noble rivers alone add large store of savings 
in diminislied cost of transportation to inter-State commerce. 

The popuhition of Kentucky by tbe last census of the United States was 
1,648,599, of which 1,589,131 were native, 59,468 foreign born, 271,522 colored. 
According to the census of 1870, the population was 1,321,011. The census of 
1880 shows, therefore, an increase of over 24 per cent. By this time — September, 
1885 — the population may be estimated to be upwards of 1,800,000. 

CLIMATE. 

The following is taken from the Report of the Tenth Census : 
"The clunate of Kentucky is remarkably pleasant, though variable. The 
mean annual temperature is about 55°. The tliermometer often falls to 20° in 
winter, and sometimes, though rarely, goes below zero ; in summer it rises to 90°, 
and very rarely to 100°. Winter sometimes continues from late in November 
until the last of March, but is often so mild that good grazing for cattle and sheep 
may be had throughout that period. The prevailing winds in spring and summer 
are from the southwest ; in winter, during the coldest periods, from the northwest. 
Rain is very frequent in winter, but the summers are sometimes characterized by 
protracted droughts. Observations by the signal service at Louisville from Sep- 
tember 11, 1871, to October 31, 1880, show a mean average temperature for the- 
seasons as follows : Spring, 56.1 degrees ; summer, 77.4 ; autumn, 56.9 ; winter, 



KENTUCKY. 373 

37.3; average mean, 56.9 ; highest temperature recorded, 102; lowest, 10 below 
zero; mean of prevailing winds, south; mean annual precipitation, 48.36 inches." 

COAL. 
The greater portion of Kentucky, excepting only those strips of territory 
con iguous to the Louisville and Nashville, Cincinnati Southern and a few other 
roads which have been in operation for some time, is essentially an undeveloped 
wilderness, but one which contains, perhaps, greater possibilities than any other 
region of corresponding area in the United States. The State is divided naturally 
mto three districts-eastern or mountainous, the central or blue-o-ra^s and the 
western or Green River. The eastern district contains a coal field o4r 10 000 
square miles in area, which, with the western field, gives the State a coal area of 
over 13,700 square miles, exceeding the area of the Pennsylvania coal fields or 
the entire coal area of Great Britain and Ireland. This coal is mostly bituminous 
and IS considered among the best known for manufacturing purposes. In addition 
to the bituminous coal in the eastern district, there is also the largest area of 
cannel coal m America. This coal is from three to four feet thick and of superior 
quality. There was very little coal mining done in Kentucky before the war. In 
18.0 the total amount mined was stated in the census report for that year to be 
100,580 tons, which m 1875 was increased to 500.000 tons, and in 1882 to 1 260 300 
tons. In the western field the most persistent and uniform coal of the series is 
D, or No. 9. It IS from four to six feet thick, averaging five feet. It is an excel- 
lent coal for gyrate and furnace and gives a good coke. A lot of slack from this 
vein from the Saint Bernard Mines, Earlington, washed and coked, gave a bright 
hrm coke There is also coal sent out via the Kentucky and Cumberland Rivers' 
and the Ohio, from Boyd and Lawrence Counties, besides local use. 

The railways are becoming large carriers of coal, and they are tendino- to 
greatly enlarge its distribution. This, in turn, tends to develop the coal resources 
ot the State. In Greenup County are valuable coals for all purposes A few 
sample analyses are appended : 

V 1 .-1 ^°-^- 'i^o.2. No. 3. No 4 

Volatile matter ^„ ^„ , ^ ^ .1^^0.4. 

Fixed carbon 39-oo 4736 36.90 33.48 

Moisture ^o-oo 50.64 58.30 60.52 

5-00 2.00 4.80 6.00 

The first and fourth are valuable for steam, and the second and third are o-ood 
cannel coals. Prof J. R. Proctor, State geologist, says : " The Eastern Kentucky 
coal fields are even superior to those of Western Kentucky, and are 10,000 square 
miles in extent. Coal is found in every county in a line between the Ohio River 
and the Tennessee State line. The thickness varies from 34 to 54 inches In the 
iiorthern part of this district are immense deposits of iron ore, and in close con- 
junction with coal beds. The completion of the Ciiesapeake and Ohio Railroad 
with its connections, will afford greater advantages for the manufacture of iron 
than are possessed by the corresponding region beyond the Ohio River. In Bath 
•County and farther south is the Red River car-wlieel iron." 

The re(x^nt survey has demonstrated the fact that the valuable deposits of 
coking coals which have added such wealth to Pennsylvania and West Virginia 
have been traced and identified in the valleys of the Cumberland, the Kent'ucky 
and the Big Sandy, with a thickness of seven or eight feet. It is claimed that the 
analysis ol the State chemist shows the coal to be equal if not superior to tliat of 
Connellsville or New River, and tliis will give a great impetus to the development 
Ol the region in which it. Jies. The following figures show the increase in coal 
production in Kentucky: 

jg GROSS .TONS. 

i88o 500,000 

1884 r,ooo,ooo 

1,550,000 



374 KENTUCKY. 

** In the "western coal field are 12 beds of coal of workable thickness of good 
quality. Associated with the lower coals are several beds of limonite and car- 
bonate iron ores, all above drainage and situated favorably for cheap mining. 
One ore of good quality has an extensive area, and is from three to five feet in 
thickness. 

" The eastern coal-field area is over 10,000 square miles ; elevation above sea 
level, 050 feet on Ohio River to l,:iOO feet on southwestern border and 3,500 feet 
on the southeastern border. * * * The western coal field has an area of about 
4,000 square miles; elevation of 400 feet along the Ohio River to 850 feet in the 
southeastern portion." 

The eastern coal field stretches clear across the State from nortii to south, 
and from the extreme eastern point to wliere it terminates west is quite one-fourth 
the width of the State. 

The western coal field begins on the Ohio River at or near Weston and runs 
up the river east to Cannelton. Its frontage on the river embraces four or more 
counties. It runs back, or south, through several counties. It is not far from 
exactitude to say that this coal field lies in latitude 38 and 37. Its longitude is 
about two degrees, conmiencing east a few miles west of 9 and extending west a 
few miles west of 11 west from Washington. It is superfluous to comment upon 
this advantage of distribution of coal area and its accessibility by water for cheap 
transportation in large part. 

Prof. John R. Proctor, director of the Kentucky Geological Survey, in a 
"Report on the Progress of the Survey from January, 1882, to January, 1884," 
says : 

In the summer of 1881 the survej'^ discovered a very thick coal of great purity, 
and tests in the laboratory indicated that it was a coking coal of superior excel- 
lence. During the summers and autumns of 1882 and 1883 the party in charge of 
Prof. Crandall was engaged in tracing this coal, determining its area and thick- 
ness, and making practical tests of its coking properties. These results will be 
shown in the forthcoming report on the geology of that region. The following 
facts have been established : This coal, which has been named for convenienr-e of 
reference the "Elkhorn coking coal," has been identified and traced over a large 
area on the headwaters of the streams above mentioned, where it is found to be 
from eight feet to nine feet thick, with conditions favorable for cheap mining. On 
the outer rim of the basin of thickest coal the same coal is found extending over 
a consitlerable area, with a thickness of from four feet to eight feet. It is hoped 
to extend the known area of this valuable coal during the coming summer. Mr. 
R. C. Ballard, Prof, Crandall's principal assistant in this work, has been engaged 
in opening up coals, sampling the same for analyses, and making practical tests of 
the coking properties. Many tests have been made in the open air, and coal was 
sent to Cincinnati, O., and Connellsville, Penna., where it was coked in regular 
coking ovens. 

The following analyses from carefully averaged samples are by Dr. Robert 
Peter and his assistant, A. M. Peter, chemists of the geological survey, compiled 
from the analyses of 112 coals in the forthcoming chemical report of the geologi- 
cal survey: 

No. in chemical report 2403 2404 2266 2352 2356 2361 

Specific gravity 1.271 1-254 1.291 1.286 t-2^9 

Hygroscopic moisture 1.60 1.80 i.io 3.26 1.46 2.86 

Volatile combustible matter 29.36 26.80 36-44 32-24 33-26 3i-54 

Coke 69.04 71 40 62.46 64.50 64.90 65.60 

Fixed carbon in the coke 6740 6760 59.66 61.60 59-7° 62.10 

Ash 1.64 3.80 2.80 2.90 5.20 3.50 

Sulphur 0.610 0.967 0.613 0.656 0.678 0.535 



KENTUCKY. 375 

Nos. 2403 and 2404 are from the coal in the basin of the headwaters of the 
Big Sandy River ; No. 2266 from the upper Cumberland, and Nos. 2352, 2356 and 
2361 from the upper Kentucky River. 

For purposes of comparison, I give below analyses of the celebrated coking 

coal of Pennsylvania : 

123 

Water at 225°, i 260 .950 n. e. 

Volatile matter 30.107 29.662 31-36 

Fixed carbon 59.616 55 -901 59-62 

Sulphur 784 1-931 7-84 

Ash 8.233 11-556 823 

Coke 68.633 69.388 6800 

Nos. 1 and 2, Connellsville coking coal; analyses by McCreath, from Second 
Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, Yol. "M.M." page 22. No. 3, Connellsville 
coking coal, Pittsburg seam; Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, special 
report L, page 120. 

The following table of analyses of cokes, compiled from the forthcoming 
chemical report, will show the excellent character of the coke made from the 
Kentucky coals. Analyses of the Pennsylvania coals are given for purposes of 
comparison : 

/ KENTUCKY COKE. , PENNSYLVANIA COKE. 

1234567 

Moisture expelled at red heat 20 1.20 i.io 0.60 .460 6.10 .50 

Fixed carbon 93.20 94.14 95.40 93.34 89.576 84.721 88.773 

Ash 6.60 4.66 3-50 6.00 9-ii3 12.636 9.512 

Sulphur 734 1.484 .517 1.335 -821 1.994 1.328 

No. 1, from Elkhorn coal, made in an oven in Cincinnati; No. 2, from Elk- 
horn coal, made in an oven in Connellsville, Penna.; No. 3, made from Elkhorn 
coal; No. 4, made from Bell County coal; Nos. 5, 6 and 7, Connellsville,"Penna., 
coke; No. 6 used at iron works of New Castle, Penna., and No. 7 used by the 
Cambria Iron Company, Johnstown, Penna. 

The value of coke for the manufacture of iron is demonstrated by the rapid 
increase in the production of coke iron in the United States. The following table 
will show the increase since 1873 : 

ANTHRACITE IRON, CHARCOAL IRON, CuKE IRON, 

TONS. TONS. TONS. 

1873 1,312,754 577-620 977,904 

1880 1,807,650 537.558 1,950,205 

The value of the Elkhorn coking coal is determined by the following condi- 
tions: (1.) Superior quality and cheapness by which it vaaj be mined. (2.) Ease 
by which it mny be brought to the Ohio Valley and the furnaces of Eastern Ken- 
tucky and Western Ohio by proposed railways. (3.) The nearness to cheap iron 
ores of superior qualitj-. (4.) The position with relation to the South Atlantic 
States, there being no coal between the southeastern" border of this coal field and 
the Atlantic Ocean. 

The amount of transportation necessary to bring the iron ore and the fuel to 
the furnaces in the United States is greater than is generally supposed. Says Mr, 
James M. Swank, secretary of the American Iron and Steel Association, and 
special expert of the Tenth Census, in his " Statistics of Iron and Steel Produc- 
tion in the United States for 1880," (page 168) : 

" From the ore mines of Lake Superior and Missouri to the coal of Pennsyl- 
vania is 1,000 miles. Connellsville coke is taken 600 miles to the blast furnaces of 
Chicago and 750 miles to the blast furnaces of St. Louis. The average distance 
over Avhich all the domestic iron ore which is consumed in the blast furnaces of 
the United States is transported is not less than 400 miles, and the average dis- 
tance over which the fuel which is used to smelt it is transported is not less than 
2C0 miles." 



876 KENTUCKY. 

On top of the sub-carboniferous limestone brouglit up by the great Pine 
Mountain fault, there is an excellent iron ore near the Elkhorn coking coal. 
Along the border of the State, in Southwest Virginia, is an extensive deposit of 
the Clinton or "fossil" iron ore — a very cheap ore — only a few miles distant from 
this Kentucky coking coal, whilst there is an abundance of high grade ores in the 
valley of Southwest Virginia, and in Western North Carolina is an extensive 
deposit of what is probably the best steel-making ore in America. During the 
census year 1,414,182 tons of ore was brought from the Lake Superior region and 
439,451 tons from across the ocean, mainly to be used in the manufacture of steel; 
hauled hundreds of miles on railways to the furnaces in the valley of the upper 
Ohio. Standing in Southeastern Kentucky upon the mountains containing the 
coking coal, and looking at the blue hills of ISTorth Carolina containing the great 
steel-making ores, I have realized that it is only necessary to make the facts well 
known to insure the building of railways to unite these great resources, and the 
consequent development of a great iron and steel industry in our midst second to 
none in America. 

There are extensive beds of iron ore favorably situated for cheap mining and 
contiguous to seams of coking coals. 

PETROLEUM. 

The almost revolution in fuel produced by natural gas at Pittsburgh gives to 
Kentucky a prospective importance hard to overestimate. It is understood that a 
large scheme is under consideration to utilize an area of this natural gas, to be 
used in Cincinnati. In \'w^Y of this, something more than a brief abstract is due 
to Kentucky on the topic in question. A most important paper on petroleum has 
just seen the light in Vol. X of the last United States Census. From it we quote 
on page 24 et seq : 

The oil and burning springs that mark the line from Blue Rock, in Ohio, to 
the Tug fork of the Sandy River, in West Virginia, is continued in outcrops on 
Paint Creek, Johnson County, Kentucky. This creek is a tributary of the west 
fork of the Big Sandy, and has been described by J. P. Lesley in his report pub- 
lished in 18G5. Springs are also met with near Saylersville, in Magoffin County. 
In Lincoln, Rockcastle, Pulaski, Casey, Green, Adair, Russell and Metcalfe Coun- 
ties oil springs are found, and oil wells have been drilled at different times. Some 
of these wells in Lincoln and Casey Counties are old salt wells drilled 50 or 60 
years ago ; others are oil wells drilled during the excitement of 1865 and 1878. 
The oil sand in Lincoln County lies at a depth of about 300 feet. A number of 
wells have been drilled in this county in the neighborhood of Stanford, all of 
which are reported to havQ reached oil, but the wa^lls have not been piped or 
pumped, and none of the oil has been put upon the market. In Wayne County 
the oldest well in the country is still flowing oil. It was drilled for brine on the 
little south fork of the Cumberland River, in the southeast corner of the county, 
in 1818. The oil is heavy, black lubricating oil. Wells have been drilled near 
Mouticello since 1865 that yield a heavy oil of a dark green color, specific gravity 
25° Baume, that has a high reputation as a lubricator. In Clinton County oil was 
obtained in 1866 ; in Cumberland County the old American well "vvas bored for 
brine in 1829 and flowed oil till 1860, and in 1865 a large number of wells were 
drilled along the Cumberland River and the creeks flowing into it, and they prob- 
ably gave the most certain and largest jield of oil that has ever been obtained for 
the same cost in any locality. At the same time, probably a larger proportion of 
the oil produced was wasted than has been the case anywhere else in the United 
States, as it is supposed that 50,OCO barrels from the American well ran down the 
Cumberland River before any attempt was made to save it. The oil near Burkes- 



KENTUCKY. 377 

ville, Cumberland County, has a peculiar, offensive odor and a specific gravity of 
37° Baume. Amber oil of a lower specific gravity was obtained from other wells 
in small ([uantity, and a larger amount was yielded by wells on Oil fork of Bear 
Creek (east of Burkesville), which was of a black color, with a specific gravity of 
2G° Baume. The oil here appears to be in a sort of marble at 90, 190 and 380 feet 
from the surface. 

On Boyd's Creek, near Glasgow, Barren County, Kentucky, oil has been 
obtained for several years in conunercial quantities, the wells being in the bed of 
the creek and on the adjoining hills. A few thousand barrels per year are 
obtained here. Wells have also reached oil on Beaver Creek north of Glas":ow. 
A well is also reported to have yielded "considerable quantities" of oil near 
Bowling Green, Warren County, and another near the Mammoth Cave, in 
Edmonson County. 

Directly north of these counties, on the Ohio River, wells have reached oil at 
Brandensburg, in Meade County, at a depth of 900 feet ; but those who drilled 
them afterward concluded that they were not deep enough. Three wells were 
also drilled near Cloverport which yielded a small quantity of oil. Another well 
is reported in Bourbon County, and still another at Henderson, in Henderson 
County. This latter well is reported to have 3'ielded a very valuable lubricating 
oil. Over at least one-third of the State scattering wells have yielded petroleum, 
some of which have been among the most remarkable in the country. 

Springs of natural gas are common throughout the region just outlined; but 

I have not learned that the gas is anywhere used for any purpose, or that more 

than one well has ever been bored for gas — that at Bristow Station, Warren 

County. 

TIMBER. 

Just about one-half of the State is in forests of veiy valuable timber, consist- 
ing of oaks of several species, ash, j'cllow poplar, black walnut, hickory, lynn, 
beech, chostnut, red cedar, &c. Large quantities of black walnut are being 
shipped East and to Europe. The business of exporting staves is large and 
increasing. 

The timbers of the North Cumberland have received especial praise. jMr. L. 
H. De Friese has made a report, from which the f(^llowing extracts are made: 
"In parts of the Black Mountains there is a growth of chestnut, yellow jjoplar, 
black walnut, Avhite and blue ash, birch, linden and white hickory that I have 
never seen surpassed. Parts of the region have been almost untouched." White 
walnut, cherry, elms, beech, etc., are also mentioned with high praise. 

The United States Census of 1880 divides the area of Kentucky thus: "In 
cultivation and grass in rotation, 8,367,910 acres; in permanent meadows and 
pastures, 2,308,773 acres; in woodland and forests, 10,703,337 acres." 

Prof Charles S. Sargent, in the Census Report on the Forest Trees of North 
America, in writing of an area in part inclusive of Eastern Kentucky, says: 

"The characteristic features of the forests of this whole region are found, 
however, in the broad-leaved s{)ecies of which it is largely composed. Oaks, 
hickories, walnuts, magnolias and ashes give variety and value to this forest, and 
here, with the exception of a few species peculiar to a more northern latitude, the 
deciduous trees of the Atlantic region attain their greatest development and 
value. Upon the slopes of the Southern Alleghany Mountams and in the valley 
of the lower Red River, regions of copious rainfall and rich soil, the deciduous 
forest of the ci^itinent attains imsurpassed variety and richness. Upon the 
Alleghany ]\Iountains, Northern and Southern sjiecies are mingled, or are only 
separated by the altitude of these mountains. Rhododendrons, laurels and mag- 
nolias, here attaining their maximum development, enliven the forests of Northern 



378 KENTUCKY. 

pine and hemlocks which clothe the flanks of these mountains, or are scattered 
through forests of otlier broad-leaved species. The cherry, the tulip tree and the 
chestnut here reach a size unknown in other parts of the country. * * * The 
hard-wood forests of the Mississippi basin are still, in certain regions at least, 
important, although the best walnut, ash, cherry and yellow poplar have been 
largely culled. Two great bodies of hard-wood timber, however, remain, upon 
which comparatively slight inroads have yet been made* The most important of 
these forests covers the region occu[>ied by the Southern Alleghany ISrountain 
system, embracing Southwestern Virginia, West Virginia, Western North and 
South Carolina, and Eastern Kentucky and Tennessee. Here oak unequaled in 
quality abounds; walnut is still not rare, although not found in any very large 
continuous bodies, and ciierry, yellow poplar and other woods of commercial 
importance are common." 

With reference to the State at large, the following language is found on 
pages 543-044: 

" The forests of Kentucky resemble in general features those of Tennessee. 
Cypress, gum and various water oaks occupy the river swamps of the western 
counties. Tiie central region, now largely cleared and devoted to agriculture,, 
was once covered with the oaks, walnuts and hickories of the Atlantic region, 
while over the eastern and southeastern counties the dense forests of tlie Alle- 
ghany Mountains extended. The eastern counties still contain great bodies of the 
best hard wood, especially black walnut, white oak, cherry and yellow poplar, 
which are particularly fine and abundant in Bell, Harlan and other southeastern 
counties. These forests, protected by the falls of the Cumberland River, which 
have prevented the driving of logs from its upper waters, and inaccessible to rail 
comnmnication, are still practically uninjured, and probably unsurpassed in the 
amount, quality and value of the timber which they contain. The destruction of 
forests to supply numerous iron furnaces with charcoal has been great in the 
northeastern counties, and no small part of this regitm has already been cut over. 

" During the census year 556,G47 acres of woodland were reported devastated 
by fire, with an estimated loss of $'237,635. Of these fires, by far the largest 
number was traced to farmers carelessly clearing land for agricultural purposes. 

"In Barren, Edmonson and other central counties extensive tracts of prairie 
existed at the time of the earliest settlement of tiie State. The presence of these 
prairies in the midst of a heavily-timbered region is ascribed to the annual burn- 
ing to which they were subjected by the aborigines. With the disappearance of 
the Indians trees sprang up, and this region is now well covered w ith a vigorous 
growth of black oaks of different species. White ojiks, however, are not abun- 
dant, and other species common to the region, such as tiie w^alnuts, the yellow 
poplar and the beech, are wanting in these young forests, indicating perhaps the 
effect of fires in checking the subsequent growth or development of many useful 
timber trees. 

PASTURAGE OP WOODLANDS. 

" Tlie forests of Kentucky, as well as those of all the central and southern 
portion of the United States, sutfer severely from the almost universal custom of 
using woodlands for pasturage. The evil resulting from this practice is only more 
apparent in Kentucky and Tennessee because in these States the amcmnt of live 
stock is proportionately larger than in other parts of the South, while in the 
thickly settled agricultural sections of these States the ratio of woodland to total 
area is smaller. The pasturage of woodlands necessitates, or at least induc(!S, the 
annual burning of the dead herbage, by which underbrush, young trees, seedlings 



*This language applies to a period two or three years ago. Considerable spoliation has since 
been made. 



KENTUCKY. 379 

and seeds are destroyed and the succession and permanence of the forest endan- 
gered. What the fires spare, brovvshig animals devour; hogs root out seedlings, 
and by selecting the sweet acorns of the white oak in preference to the bitter 
fruit of the black oaks, are gradually changing the composition of the oak forests. 
Comparatively few white oaks spring up in the forests of the more thickly settled 
portions of the central Atlantic region, and this change of forest composition 
must be ascribed to the preference of domestic animals for the palatable fruit of 
what, as regards their timber, are the most valuable species. The injury, too, 
inflicted by the constant stamping of animals and consequent packing of the laud 
about the stems of old trees is very great, and all reports speak of the gradual 
dying of old trees left standing in the grazing regions of Kentucky and Tennessee. 

" The spread of the mistletoe {Plwradendron flarescens\ consequent upon the 
removal of the forest and the increase in the number of birds (the mistletoe seems 
to require a certain amount of light and air for its development; it does not 
flourish or increase rapidly in the dense forest, and cannot spread except by the 
agency of birds), is a cause of serious injury to the forest of this whole region. 
It slowly but surely destroys the trees upon which it obtains a foothold. The 
black walnut especially suffers from the growth of this jmrasite, which seems 
destined to destroy the finest walnut timber left standing in the settled portions 
of the southern central region. 

"Large quantities of cooperage and wheel stock are produced all over the 
State, and manufacturers generally report no scarcity or deterioration of timber, 
with the exception of white oak. The principal centers of lumber manufacture 
are at the mouth of the Tennessee River, in McCracken County, where a large 
amount of cypress, sycamore, gum, oak, walnut and other hard Avood is manufac- 
tured for the Northern mai-ket from logs rafted down the Tennessee and other 
streams flowing into the Mississippi ; at Frankfort, where poplar, oak, ash, walnut, 
pine, cherry, hickory and maple logs, rafted from the upper waters of the Ken- 
tucky River, are sawed, the lumber being shipped North and East by rail ; and at 
Louisville, wheit3 walnut, poplar and oak lumber is manufactured for local con- 
sumption. The manufacture of pumps and water-pipes from logs of the Jersey 
pine {Pimis inops\ at one time an important industry at Louisville, has, since the 
general introduction of city and town water-works, become unremunerative and 
unimportant." 

MANUFACTURES. 

La 1880, when the census statistics were gathered, Kentucky stood second on 
the list of Southern States in the amount of capital invested in manufactures, 
being outranked by Maryland alone. At that date there were in Kentucky 5,328 
manufacturing enterprises, employing a capital of $45,813, O^jO, the value of the 
products being $75,483,377. The manufacturing capital of this State at that time 
equalled the combined manufacturing capital of North Carolina, South Carolina 
and Georgia. While Maryland ranked above Kentucky in this line in 1880, it is 
quite probable that the latter State is now ahead of the former, as the increase of 
manufactures in Kentucky during the last few years has been much greater than 
in any other Southern State. In fact, the development of the nianutacturing 
interests of that State has been something remarkable, even when taken in con- 
nection with the rapid growth of the industrial interests of the whole South. Li 
the statistics of new industries established in the South, as published quarterly 
by the Baltimore Manufacturers' Record, Kentucky invariably takes the lead in 
the amount of capital invested and in the number of new enterprises established. 

Among the most important manufacturing industries in Kentucky in 1880 
were the following: 



^80 KENTUCKY. 

VALUE 
KINDS. NO. CAPITAL. OF PRODUCTS. 

Agricultural implements 86 $2,296,037 ;^i,647,ii6 

Flour and grist mills 652 3*685, 759 9,604,147 

Foundry and machine shop products 50 2,283,350 3>oi3)079 

Iron and steel 29 5.493>o35 5,090,029 

Leather, tanned 63 1,741,430 2,511,960 

Liquors, distilled 215 6,345,922 8,281,018 

Liquors, malt 30 1,260,944 1,491,659 

Lumber, sawed 670 2,290,558 4,064,361 

Printing 48 1,401,700 1,289,316 

Slaughtering and meat packing 31 2,229,500 4,538,888 

Tobacco (chewing, smoking and snuff; 28 i,o6y,8oo 3>734>S35 

The manufacture of whiskey, as will be seen from these figures, employed in 
1880 more capital than any other industry, and the value of its products, taking 
distilled and malt liquors together, was slightly in excess of the value of the pro- 
ducts of flour and grist mills, which stood second on the list. The increase in 
flour and grist mills during the last few years has been very great, and this 
industry doubtless now exceeds in the value of its products the manufacture of 
whiskey. 

The manufacture of agricultural implements is a great industry in Kentucky, 
and in the making of plows especially this State does a heavy business. In 1880, 
Kentucky, with the exception of Indiana and Illinois, made more plows than any 
other State in the Union. This industry is mainly located in Louisville, where 
there are a number of immense plow factories, one of them having a paid-up 
capital of $1,500,000. 

It is not in these few leading industries alone, however, that good progress is 
being made, for the growth of the manufactures in Kentucky includes a wide 
diversity of enterprises, thus ensuring a more healthy and permanent future than 
if the progress noted was confined to a few over-stimulated industries. 

WATERWAYS. 

it would be an unpardonable omission to fail to give greater consideration 
than yet has been given to the waterways of the State, and if great elaboration 
could give due emphasis to this, the topic were well worth discursiveness. The 
State is most remarkably ramified by streams, and many of them have their rise 
in an imperi»hable source — the Cumberland jMountains. An English journalist 
puts it well thus : 

" Kentucky, it will be seen, occupies a most central position in what is known 
as the Mississippi basin, a district which, in all coming time, cannot fail to be the 
most important in North America. Its contiguity to the vast river systems of the 
continent must have upon its future development the greatest possible influence, 
the more so because no single State of the Union has advantages equal to Ken- 
tucky in the way of water communication. Its river system impressed me greatly, 
more particularly the fact that about 1,500 miles of navigable water was to be 
found in the State. As I have pointed out, the Ohio River — one of the noblest 
streams on any continent — runs along one frontier for more than GOO miles. Then 
there is the Kentucky River, with at least some 300 miles now navigable, and 
capable of having two or three hundred more miles added by the judicious use of 
locks and dams. There are, besides, the Cumberland, the Green, the Licking, the 
Tradewater and the Tennessee Rivers, concerning which any ordinary geographi- 
cal gazetteer will supply valuable information, rendering it unnecessary to refer 
to them at length here. I have emphasized this point, because, in a State with 
such a marvelous wealth of natural resources as Kentucky has, these important 
streams must unquestionably be of the greatest advantage." 

More authoritative is the following by Hon. John R. Procter, in one of his 
publications : 



KENTUCKY. 381 

" The State has a river boundary of 813 miles — by the Chattaroi or Big Sandy 
on the northeast, 1~0 miles; by the Ohio on the north, 643 miles, and by the Mis- 
sissippi on the west, 50 miles. The principal rivers have their sources in the 
Cumberland Mountains and afford to all parts of the State river communication 
with the Ohio and entire Mississippi River S3'stem. No State has a frontage on 
navigable rivers equal to Kentucky. This insures to the State cheap transporta- 
tion in the future for the abundant forests and large deposits of coal and iron ores 
contiguous to the streams. » * * The citizen of Kentucky has the advantage 
of navigable rivers penetrating all parts of the State. From these it is possible 
to run flat-boats, barges and rafts of timber into the Ohio River, and also by the 
river current, without any cost save the i»ire of necessary pilot and hands to man 
the boats, to New Orleans, thus giving to all the power of reaching ocean trans- 
portation at small cost." 

So much by way of generality as to the extent of her waterways. The system 
of waterways is one of the most important on the continent (as goes almost with- 
out saying), and the United States Government has recently begun improvement 
of the navigation of the rivers of the State. 

Of course, the reflection is familiar how waterways not only compel decent 
rates in railroads subject to their competition, but incite competition in lines of 
transportation availing themselves of these water highways. 

But there is another feature of Kentucky Rivers which is impressing, and 
that is a remarkable parallelism, and the almost inevitable competition betsveen 
them (as it were) for the future business to be transacted upon them. Let one 
look how the Big Sandy, the Licking, the Kentucky, the Rolling Fork, the Green, 
the Cumberland, with all their branches, come into the Ohio. Just reflect in the 
future the small steamboats and barge lines that will come into vogue upon these, 
and see how, to enterprises situated between and near these streams, competing 
rates will be offered by lines of transportation on separate streams competing for 
the business of these enterprises. I know of nothing to which, to compare it, 
except in Delaware and the Eastern Shore of Maryland, 'where small sloops and 
schooners run up creeks and rivers within a mile or two of each other, and bid 
sharply for the business of the farmers — in the former case for the city of Phila- 
delphia ; in the latter for Baltimore. 

WATER-POWERS. 

It is a corollary, from the innumerable streams of Kentucky, their sources, 
the rocks through which they have cut their way and the many '* rapids " in their 
courses, that there are many fine water-powers on them. No comprehensive esti- 
mate can be given of them, and I do not know that any has ever been made; but 
it may be said that there is no going amiss of plenty of them if intelligent search 
be made, most particularly on the east side of the State. 

SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. 

I quote from Dr. Robert Peter, cliemist of the Kentucky Geological Survey, 
an agricultural chemist and practical agriculturist of large experience : 

Geologists inform us that, even in strata which had been deposited or formed 
at the same geological time, the rock-layers at the North are sometimes formed of 
coarse-grained, insoluble, silicious material, while those farther South and West 
are Iknestones or fine-grained shales, rich in phosphates and other soluble materials. 

Another geological cause of the comparative fertility of Kentucky soils is, 
that these rock strata out of which they were formed, and which are made up of 
the most finely divided or soluble materials, were raised above the general surfoce 
of the primeval ocean very early in geological history, and have therefore been 
exposed to the disintegrating influence of the atmospheric agencies for immense 



382 KEHTUCKT. 

unknown ages, so tliat soils formed of these rocks alone have been gradually pro- 
duced to a much greater depth than is to be observed in almost any other country. 
Soils thus formed, in place, out of the rock strata on which they rest are called by 
writers "sedentary soils," and said to have usually little depth. They are hardly 
known over the broad expanse of our continent north and west of Kentucky, the 
whole of that extensive region being covered by a mixed deposit of clay, sand, 
gravel and boulders called the " drift," made up of the debris of more northern 
rock strata, which have been carried, during long periods of polar refrigeration, 
by the inunense glaciers which then covered a great portion of the Northern 
Hemis|)here. 

This mixed deposit, made up largely of coarse and hard silicious materials, 
which so covers the country of the great Northwest that scientific observers of 
the North have asserted that the soil is not affected by its underlying rock 
stratum, does not seem to have crossed the valley of the Ohio River to enter 
Kentucky. The southern extremity of the polar ice-field seems to have been near 
the line of our latitude, and the great stream of water flowing from it, carrying 
its gravel and sand, deflected by the river valley and by the elevated table-land of 
our ancient rocks, was turned west of our State, leaving undisturbed and unburied 
the rich soil which had been produced in the long period during which those rocks 
liad been raised above the ocean level. 

To these fortunate geological conditions, therefore, are our Kentucky soils 
greatly indebted for their fertility and for the extremely fine state of division of 
their constituent particles. In the great majority of these soils analyzed by the 
present writer, the silicious particles left after digesting the soils in chlorohydric 
acid of specific gravity 1.1 all passed through a fine sieve which had sixteen hun- 
dred meshes in the centimetre square. All scientific writers on soils attach the 
greatest importance to the relative fineness of the particles which form them. 
Mons. DeGasparin (" Terres Arables," 3me. ed., p. 33) says: " It must not be for- 
gotten that the nutritive power of a soil, other things being equal, is in direct 
proportion to the fineness of the particles which compose it ;" so much so, indeed, 
that when a soil is to be chemically analyzed, only the "fine earth," or that por- 
tion which will pass through a sieve having ten wires to the centimetre, is taken 
for the analj'sis, the coarser part being considered practically inert as to plant 
nourishment — only a skeleton, which is not to be taken into account when esti- 
mating the fertility of a soil; and this is especially true when the coarser particles 
are of quartz, or some hard silicate not readily to be disintegrated or decomposed 
by the ordinary process of weathering, or which do not contain any essential ele- 
ment of plant nourishment. 

In this important particular our Kentucky soils are more valuable than the 
great body of those of the great Northwest ; that not only are their constituent 
particles very minutely divided, but even these, fine enough to pass through the 
meshes of the finest sieve above described, are not entirely fine sand of silica, but 
contain a considerable proportion of fine particles of decomposable silicates, 
which in the process of weathering help to keep up the supply of essential plant 
food and make the soils very durable. In some of his analyses of Kentucky soils 
the writer has found as much as 2.9 per cent, of potash in the fine silicious residue 
of a soil which was left after a week's digestion in diluted chlorohydric acid, but 
which would gradually be unlocked and made available for plant growth under 
the influence of time and the atmospheric agencies. 

The late Dr. David D. Owen, former director of the Kentucky Geological 
15urvey, placed in the writer's possession a series of samples of soils which he had 
collected during his celebrated exploration of the great Northwestern territory 
for the United States Government in 1847-50, some of which the writer analyzed. 



KENTUCKY. 383 

giving the results in Vol. IV., O. S., Kentucky Geological Reports. These soils, 
characteristic of the best of this great prairie region, are mostly very dark colored, 
sometimes almost black, from the presence of a large proportion of organic matter, 
some of -vvliich is peaty or semi-bituminous — of little value for plant food — derived 
from the decomposing remains of many succ^essive growths of grasses or aquatic 
plants in recent or former ages; but in them all, and in some of them in very 
large proportion, are visible grains of quartzose sand, reducing materially the 
quantity of "tine earth," and consequently the durability of these soils. AVhile 
the organic matters — the dark vegetable mould, give to such soils great fertility at 
first, and cultivation is facilitated by the sandy ingredient, the durability of such 
soils without tlie aid of artificial fertilizers would be much less than that of our 
best Kentucky soils, which contain no coarse sand, but are altogether "fine earth," 
made up partly of decomposable silicates. By reliable accounts, the older ]>rairie 
farmers find it necessary even now to resort to artificial fertilizers, while on the 
best lands of Kentucky cropping for a hundred years has not yet brouglit about 
this necessity, nor will it perhaps for hundreds of years more, where the soil rests 
on a decomposable limestone which annually gives up in solution to the soil above 
as much essential mineral plant food as may be removed from it by a judicious 
system of culture. 

The great wheat-growing region of the Northwest, known as the Red River 
Valley, is unmodified glacial drift, and the exhaustion by the present system of 
culture may be confidently predicted. 

In the Mississippi bottom Kentucky has some 320 square miles, lying between 
the Mississippi and Tennessee Rivers, in Fulton and the southern parts of Hick 
man, Graves and Calloway Counties. This is part of a great belt of country 
famous for its mellow rich lands and as a cotton-producing region. Then, near 
by is considerable of the loess soil, one of the most enduring and fertile of all soils 
in tlie country. 

No State of this Union possesses a rounder or more symmetrical agriculture 
than Kentucky. Its manj'-sidedness is most impressive. The variety of products 
is striking enough, but the force and strength in many of t-hem are what conspire 
to give the State such potency and weight in the scale of Federal agriculture. 

The product for which. Kentucky is most noted is tobacco. According to the 
last Census Report, Kentucky takes first rank as a tobacco-growing State, pro- 
ducing more than double the quantity of any other State, and more than one-third 
of the entire amount produced in the Union. The entire area covered by the crop 
for 1879 (226,120 acres) shows an average yield per acre of 756.77 pounds. Tlie 
area of its cultivation is widening every year, extending into the mountainous 
districts on the east, and contracting the limits of the blue-grass region in the 
-central portion of the State. 

There are eight tobacco-growing districts in Kentucky recognized by the 
trade, each having some peculiarities of soil, producing types more or less dis- 
tinct. These districts are : 

I. Paducah or western district, embracing the counties of Fulton, Hickman, 
Graves, Ballard, McCracken, Marshall and Calloway, 

II. Ohio River district, embracing the counties of Livingston, Crittenden, 
Caldwell, Lyon, Hancock, Breckenridge and Meade, in two separate bodies, the 
Lower Green River district lying between them, with its coal measures. 

III. Lower Green River district, embracing the counties of Henderson, 
Union, Daviess, Webster, Hopkins, McLean and Mulilenburg, resembling adja- 
cent districts of Indiana and Illinois. 

IV. Green River district, embracing the counties of Butler and Ohio. 



384 KENTUCKY. 

V. Upper Green River district, embracing the counties of Barren, Warren, 
Hardin, Grayson. Edmonson, Hart, Green, La Rue, Marion, Taylor and Allen. 

VI. Clarksville district, embracing the counties of Trigg, Christian, Todd, 
Logan and Simpson, and seven counties in Tennessee. 

VIL Cumberland River district, embracing the counties of Metcalfe, Russell, 
Adair. Clinton, Cumberland, Monroe, Casey, Wayne and Pulaski. 

YIII White Burley district, embracing what was formerly known as the 
Boone County district, the Mason County district, the Pendleton County district 
and the Kentucky River district. The following counties are now included in 
the White Burley district, though it is rapidly widening, and may soon embrace 
several other districts: Boone, Kenton, Campbell, Gallatin, Grant, Pendleton, 
Bracken, Carroll, Owen, Harrison, Robertson, Mason, Lewis, Fleming, Montgom- 
ery, Nicholas, Bourbon, Scott, Franklin, Henry, Trimble, Oldham, Shelby and 
Woodford. The cultivation of the White Burley is even invading the blue-grass 
region of Fayette and the surrounding counties. 

FRUITS. 

Although Kentucky has not gained prominence as a fruit State, there is 
thereby no necessary implication against her soil and climate with reference to 
fruit production. Owing to her great variety of soils and the character of her 
climates, it must be seen that the State is capable of producing a great variety of 
fruits. From the low elevation above the Gulf of Mexico of her rich alluvion on 
her western border, with its warm mellow soil, to the altitudes of the mountains 
on her eastern border, is a great range. In the latter area, by way of distinguish- 
ment from the former, the cherry, plums, raspberry, gooseberry, currant, and 
varieties of apple and pear, requiring generally a much higher latitude, are " at 
home." Further west and south, those fruits common to much of the country at 
large should receive greater consideration for the possibility of earliness than 
they have — early apples, peaches, pears, strawberries, grapes, raspberries, etc. 
The railroads in the latter area offer great conveniences for transportation to- 
market and have measurably stimulated production. If it be said that the pro- 
duction of early fruits is overdone, the answer is that there is wide scope for 
improvement in methods in many regards. 

VEGETABLES. 

It need hardly be said to any American reader that there is nothing to bar 
the production of any vegetable in Kentucky that is common to the country at 
large, and early peas, beans, potatoes, tomatoes, etc., offer a fair field for operations. 

The author of this book has visited many times various parts of the State of 
Kentucky, and he has leisurely observed some of its choicest areas. It is certainly 
no disparagement to any other portion of the United States to say that there is 
no more beautiful and celebrated area in the country, in point of pastoral attrac- 
tiveness, tlian the blue-grass region. Its celebrity is almost world-wide. "The 
blue-grass region of Kentucky " sounds upon the ear like an incantation, and the 
name seems to involve the imagination and memory in a delicious spell, in which 
it is next to impossible to tell which of these faculties plays the greater part. It 
is a sort of modern Arcadia and rife with bucolic suggestions. It stands to all 
well-informed and appreciative citizens of the United States as the climax of 
pastoral life — the Eden of the stock-raiser,' the Elysium of the cultured dreamer. 
Its magnificent parks, clad with its famous grass,* where graze its renowned 
herds; the Avide-spreading, towering trees gracing these parks; the ornate, 
spacious, costly homes, where wealth, beauty and culture dispense their fascina- 
tions to the grandly-welcomed guest, bind the heart in the gracious fetters of 

Kentucky blue-grass i^Poa pratensis). 



KENTUCKY. 385 

their kindly spell. There the pellucid stream meanders in silvery sinuousness, 
and the sparkling brook leaps and laughs in a glee, as though gladsome and blest 
in the privilege of its pretty and tireless gambols; there is the most celebrated 
home of the lordly Short Horn ; there is to be found the fleetest and most endur- 
ing racer ; thither resort, as to both a 3Iecca and the choicest mart, the wealthiest 
and best known stock-raisers of Great Britain, the United States and Canada, to 
add to their fiime and fortune selections from the horses, cattle and sheep of the 
Kentucky breeders. It is a wealthy, cultured, glorious country. The banks are 
crammed with money; for the stock-raisers there have got almost fabulous prices 
for their stock. It is, better than all yet said, a land of " fair women and brave 
men." "Who shall tell of the indescribable union of charms in the women — "the 
ripe and real," the rich, round, sumptuous beauty, with its voluptuous spell, and 
yet the spiritual grace, the atmosphere of higlier life, the hovering halo so rife of 
commerce with the skies ? When one thinks of their sylphid grace, their luxu- 
riant symmetry, the soft enchantments of their glorious figures, one is reminded 
of Suckling's beauty in the fonious ballad on the Easter wedding. When one sees 
the light irradiating them and dominating the beholder, one thinks of how — 

"Soul is form and doth the body make;" 

or of that other sentiment : 

" The eloquent blood 
Shone in her cheek, and so distinctly wrought, 
One could not tell if soul or body thought." 

No one can be unobservant of the superb physique so common among the 
men of that country. Nowliere can there be seen as many men of fine height 
and vigor. Prof. Procter, in one of his publications, says : " That the conditions 
are most favorable for the production of a vigorous race of men is attested by the 
tables of measurements of the United States volunteers during the civil war by 
A. B. Gould. The soldiers born in Kentucky and Tennessee excelled all others 
in height, Aveight, circumference around the head, circumference of chest, ratio 
of weight to stature, and proportional number of tall men in each 100,000 of 
same nativity." 

He also says : ** The speed and endurance of the Kentucky horse, and the 
superior development of all kinds of domestic animals of the State, are well 
known." This development of domestic animals, it is very generally agreed, is 
owing to the large quantity of phosphate of lime in the soil available for plant 
food. It is a condition of soil destined to distinguish parts of Mississippi and 
Alabama, and possibly some other Southern States. 

This blue-grass region has an area of 10,000 square miles, or one-fourth the 
State?. Its elevation is from 800 to 1,150 feet above the sea. 

HEALTHFULNESS. 

It is a natural transition from a portrayal of the vigor of the men and women 
to the topic of the healthfulness of the State. From Prof Procter we quote: 

" In healthfulness the State ranks high. * * * Death to population was, 
in 1850, 1.53 per cent.; in 1860, 1.42 per cent.,- in 1870, 1.09 per cent.; in 1880, 0.72 
per cent. * * * The high elevation, perfect drainage, salubrity of climate 
and purity of waters combine favorably, and insure health and vigor to the 
population." 

PROXIMITY TO 31ARKETS. 

The State of Kentucky is singularly blessed in another respect — she is in the 
very center of population. The United States Census for 1880 places the center 
of population for the entire country in Kentucky, eight miles west by south from 
Cincinnati. To Cincinnati the citizens of Kentucky have access by water for a 



386 KENTUCKY. 

large area of the State. Near are other considerable cities — Indianapolis, Pitts- 
burgh, Louisville and others. 

The prices of lands in Kentucky are niucli lower than in the competing 
States of Illinois, Indiana and Ohio. A glance at the map Avill show that these 
States share with Kentucky the benefits of the Ohio River. 

PLACES OF 4,000 INHABITANTS AND OVER. 

The places of 4,000 population and upwards, according to the last (tenth) 
United States Census, are: Bowling Green, 5,114; Covington, 29,720; Frankfort 
(capital), C,958 ; Henderson, 5,3G5; Hopkinsville, 4,229; Lexington, 16,656; Louis- 
ville, 123,758; Maysville, 5,220; Newport, 20,433; Owensboro, 6,231; Paducah, 
8,036. Louisville is a great whiskey and tobacco mart particularl}^, and by reason 
of her location and facility for procurement of and proximity to raw materials, 
must always manufocture much tobacco, whiskey, articles of hemp (in the pro- 
duction of which the State has long held the supremacy) and flour. The city 
ought some day to be a great place for manufacturing furniture, paper from wood 
pulp, and in the production of many articles in the iron line. 



TENNESSEE. 



Tennessee has for its northern boundary Virginia and Kentucl^y; on the east 
is Nortlr Carolina ; on the south, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi ; while on the 
west it is separated from Arkansas and Missouri by the Mississippi River. The 
population of the State in 1880 was 1,54^,359—1,525,657 native and 16,702 foreign ; 
1,138,831 white and 403,151 colored. 

Concerning the general features of this State, nothing more accurate or satis- 
factory could be presented than the following from the Report of the Tenth 
Census. It was prepared by the eminent geologist, James M. Safford, A. M., Ph. 
D., M. D., State Geologist of Tennessee, and Professor of Geology and Natural 
History in Vanderbilt University : 

The southern boundary of Tennessee coincides mostly with the parallel of 
latitude 35° north ; its northern limit is a broken line lying between the parallels 
of 36° 4.V. In general outline the State has approximately the figure of a long 
rhomboid. Its mean length from east to west is about 385 miles, while its mean 
breadth cannot be much over 109 miles. Its laud area is estimated to be 41,750 
square miles ; its water surface 300 square miles. 

VARIETY m NATURAL FEATURES. 

The length of the State, and the fact that it reaches, in its ribbon-like form, 
from the crest of a great mountain range on the east to the very low alluvial plain 
of the Mississippi on the west, through a varied territory, gives to Tennessee its 
most prominent characteristic, to wit : great variety. This is seen in its topog- 
raphy, geology, soil, climate, agriculture, and we may say in the character and 
habits of its population. 

Nearly all the important physical and geological features of the States 
around it are represented more or less (grouped as if for contrast) within its 
borders. Tenneneee has, for example, on the one hand, some of the greatest 
mountain ridges of the Apalachians, with their ' bald ' summits and ancient rocks; 
on the other, the low land, cypress swamps and alluvial beds of the Mississippi 
River. It has also well represented the singular parallel valleys and ridges of 
Middle Virginia; the highlands, the 'barrens' and the rich limestone lands of 
Kentucky, and the orange-colored sand-hills, the cretaceous beds and cotton soils 
of Northern Mississippi. The same variety and contrast exist in the matter of 
climate, especially as to summer temperatures. 

GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY AND ELEVATION. 

To aid in understanding the topography of the State, it will be well to 
assume and have in mind a great horizontal plane, having an elevation of 000 
feet above the sea, with which to compare the general surfiice. Throwing out of 
view for the moment some of the local geographical features— that is to say, the 
mountain ranges of the eastern portion and the basins and valleys of the western, 
the general surface coincides more or less with this plane. I say more or less, for 



388 TENNESSEE. 

the surface is in a degree a warped one, coinciding at very many points with the 
plane, but at others either rising above or sinking below it. 

The parts of the State approximately coinciding with our assumed plane of 
900 feet elevation, or at least directly referable to it, are the great divisions named : 
The plateau slope of West Tennessee, the highland rim of Middle Tennessee and 
the Valley of East Tennessee. 

The Valley of East Tennessee, in its upper or northern part, is a few hun- 
dred feet above the plane, while in its central and southern parts it at first 
coincides and then very gradually falls below it. The highlands of Middle 
Tennessee in some counties, as in Lawrence and Wayne, present a flat surface 
100 feet higher than our assumed reference i)lane, while in Montgomery and 
adjoining counties the corresponding highlands are considerabl}^ lower. The 
* ridge' in West Tennessee dividing the waters of the Tennessee and Mississippi 
Elvers, and including the summit line of the great plateau slope, must at some 
points be nearly, if not quite, as high as the plane. Westward, however, the 
general surface sloping off towards the Mississippi falls considerably below, and 
may be regarded as terminating at an average elevation of not far from 400 feet 
along the edge of the bluff escarpment which faces the alluvial plane of the great 
river. 

Upon the surface, as described, rest the mountains of the State, the most 
important being the great ranges of the Unaka Region and the Cumberland 
Table-land. Cut out of it and below it are the central basin of Middle Tennessee, 
the western valley of the Tennessee River and the Mississippi Bottom Region. 

Politically, the State is divided into three large divisions, namely: West 
Tennessee, Middle Tennessee and East Tennessee. The first embraces all the 
counties between the Mississippi and Tennessee Rivers, including the whole of 
Hardin County, altogether less than one-third of the State; the second the 
counties between the Tennessee River and a line approximately dividing longi- 
tudinally the Cumberland Table-land, the largest division ; and the third all the 
remaining counties in the eastern end of the State. 

CLIMATE. 

As already stated, in climate, as in other natural features, the State presents 
a marked variety, This is especially true of summer temperatures. The valley 
lands of upper East Tennessee have the summers of Ohio and New Jersey; the 
lowlands of Middle Tennessee have the summers of the northern part of Georgia; 
while West Tennessee is warmed by the summer of the central parts of Georgia 
and South Carolina. And further, there is, as will be seen hereafter, an extended 
line of high points on the eastern border of the State which have the cool breezes 
of a Canadian summer, and are, to some extent, clothed with a Canadian flora. 
The climate of the State, exclusive of its mountains, is, in general, midway in 
character between that of a temperate and that of a sub-tropical r<'gion, or rather 
it combines the milder features of the two. In common with a large part of the 
Valley of the Mississippi, the climate is subject to comparatively great extremes, 
yet these extremes never reach the excessive cold of the Northern States or the 
highest temperature of the tropics. 

Herbage is often green throughout the year, and cattle can gen eialh' graze, 
with but little interruption from cold or snow, during all the months of the 
winter. Many shrubs which, in States farther north, lose their leaves during the 
winter, here not unfrequently retain tliem the year round. 

The daily changes of temperature are considerable, and, in connnon with a 
large area of the Mississippi Valley, the State has a full share of humidity and 
sufficient rains. It is a part of the region of which it is said " cotton, Indian corn 



TENNESSEE. 389 

and the cane find their natural climate here, but not elsewhere in any considerable 
degree bej'ond the tropics." 

The annual mean temperature along a parallel running longitudinally 
through the middle of the State is, according to the best observations and esti- 
mates, about 60.5° for West Tennessee, 58.5° for Middle Tennessee, on the meridian 
of Nashville, and 57.5° for tlie Valley of East Tennessee, the range being 3°. For 
the annual means of parts of West and Middle Tennessee near the northern 
boundary of the State one degree may be subtracted from each of the above 
numbers respectively, and for parts near the southern boundary one degree added. 
In East Tennessee two degrees must be added and subtracted respectively for the 
northern and soutliern means. These approximations are tlie best that can be 
made at present. In making them, the temperatures of the mountain divisions, 
namely: the Cumberland Table-land and the Unaka Region, have not been 
considered. 

The length of the period between the last killing frost of spring and the 
first killing frost of autumn is to the agriculturist an important element of cli- 
mate. It is the measure of the growing season, at least so far as the cotton-plant 
is concerned. Not including the mountains, the average time for the last killing 
frost of spring is the middle of April iu the northern counties of the State, 
excepting in those of upper East Tennessee, where it occurs a few days later. In 
the southern part of the State it is a week sooner. The average time of the first 
killing frost of autumn in the northern counties is the middle of October. It 
occurs a few days earlier in upper East Tennessee, and a week later in the 
southern counties of the State. The number of days between these frosts— that 
of spring and that of autumn — averages 189 for the northern part of the State 
and 203 for the southern. Frosts, of course, may occur respectively before or 
after the times specified, but the probabilities are against it. Early frosts begin 
to be a source of apprehension before the last of September, especially in the 
more northern portions of the State, and the cotton crop often suffei's more or 
less from them. The latitude of Tennessee is such that a fall of two degrees of 
temperature in the northern part of the State might cause a killing frost, resulting 
in the destruction of the cotton-plants, while the same fall in the southern part 
would leave them intact. The length of the growing season for cotton is, at the 
best, short enough in the southern part of the State, and where so slight a change 
of temperature produces such results, we can readily see how, in the northern 
part, it may be generally too short for full crops, which in reality it is. It amounts 
to nearly the same thing to say that the margin of the cotton-growing section of 
the country runs thi-ough Tennessee. In an inspection of the map showing- 
percentage of aggregate areas in cotton, as compared with the entire area of any 
given region, it is seen that the counties in Tennessee which plant and produce 
the most cotton are strikingly the most southerly ones, and that from these the 
production decreases almost uniformly as we go north. This is especially so in. 
West Tennessee. Now, in explanation of this, in great part at least, it is to be 
noted that the isotherms or lines of equal temperature for spring and fail extend 
west-northwest throughout the State, say parallel with a line nmning through 
Chattanooga and Trenton or thereabout. This shows the southwestern corner to 
be the warmest, and here is our great center of cotton culture. The greater 
warmth stimulates the cottdti, and, by throwing back the killing frosts, increases 
the length of the growing season. The soils have their influence, but that they 
arc not dominant in this distribution of percentage cuHure is shown by the fact 
that as we go north the decrease occurs, though the soils and elevation remain 
essentially the same. It is also noteworthy that as we go eastward from each of 
the two centers of cotton culture, (the southwesterly comer of the State and the 



£9^ TENNESSEE. 

southern part of the central basin,) the percentage of cotton culture rapidly 
decreases. The temperature and high elevation obviously have much to do with 
this decrease. 

The rainfall for seven years (1873-1879) was : At Memphis, 54.40 inches ; at 
Nashville, 51.98 inches, and at Knoxville, 54.53 inches, giving a mean of 53.()0 
inches. Our data indicate that we have the least rain in autumn, and the most in 
winter and spring, yet so distributed through the months as to prevent a ly 
marked distinction into wet and dry seasons. The most favorable seasons are 
those in which the rainfall is about mean, provided it is suitably distributed 
among the months. It is more frequently too dry than too wet during the 
summer. 

MINERAL RESOURCES. 

In minerals Tennessee is one of the richest States in the Union. She stands 
among the first of the Southern States that have within the last few years been 
found to possess such vast beds of coal and iron ore. She furnishes the most 
costly and beautiful marble. Other minerals, such as building stones, roofing 
slates, copper, zinc, etc., exist in quantities. The following in reference to the 
minerals of the State is from the pen of Henry E. Colton, Esq., geologist and 
mining engineer, Nashville, Tenn. : 

COAL. 

The superficial area in the State of Tennessee covered by coal-bearing strata 
amounts to 5,100 square miles; but this does not fairly represent the amount of 
coal in the State, as all this area has at least one seam of coal, a large proportion 
more than two, and a very considerable area has six or more workable seams. It 
is thus seen that the mere area of a coal-field may be a very poor indication of 
the quantity of coal it contains, and without an examination into the thickness of 
the seams and the quality of the coal therein, any judgment formed from area 
alone may be very incorrect. Missouri contains vastly more coal area than 
Tennessee, yet one seam in Tennessee is worth more for economic purposes than 
all the coal of Missouri. 

In Pennsylvania there is a formation under the regular coal series known as 
the False coal measures, having only thin bands of coal; in Tennessee the meas- 
ures contain several workable seams of coal of excellent quality. The lower 
and upper measures of Pennsylvania also appear in this State, but the great mass 
of rocks of the barren measures appear in much reduced thickness. It is thus 
seen that while Tennessee has all the bituminous coals of Pennsylvania, this State 
has also a coal-bearing strata which in that is bare of any productive seams. 
While the area covered by our coal-field is not so large, yet it is probable that we 
have as much or more of this mineral fuel— the anthracite field excepted— than 
the great iron State. 

The Tennessee coal-field belongs to that division known in geology as the 
Apalachian coal-field, which, commenchig in Pennsylvania, extends over Ohio, 
Kentucky, West Virginia, Tennessee, and ends in Alabama. While its width in 
Pennsylvania and Ohio extends through four degrees of longitude, at the northern 
laoundary of Tennessee it is only about seventy-one miles, and at its southern 
boundary fifty miles. In its southern course into Alabama it expands into a 
leart-shaped area one hundred miles or more in width. The area of this coal- 
field in Tennessee includes within its limits the counties of Scott, Morgan, Cum- 
herland, the greater part of Fentress, Van Buren, Bledsoe, Grundy, Sequatchie 
and Marion ; considerable parts of Claiborne, Campbell, Anderson, Rhea, Roane, 
Overton, Hamilton, Putnam, White and Franklin, and small portions of Warrea 
and Coffee. 



TENNESSEE. 391 

The Cumberland Table -land has generally a broad, flat top, capped with a 
iayer of conglomerate sandstone, averaging perhaps seventy feet in thickness. 
"This layer of sandstone on the western edges of the table-land forms a steep 
escarpment or brow — bold, distinct, and well-marked — from twenty to one hun- 
dred, and sometimes two hundred feet high. Beneath this often overhanging 
brow the steep, woody slopes of the sides begin and run down to the -lowlands. 
These slopes below the cliffs usually rest against the lower coal measures and 
upon the mountain limestone. The eastern outline of the Cumberland Table-land 
is for some distance a nearly direct line, making, however, a curve, and taking in 
portions of Roane, Anderson and Campbell Counties. The western edge is 
jagged, notched by innumerable coves and valleys, and presenting a scolloped or 
ragged contour, with outlying knotfS separated from the main table-larnd by deep 
ravines or fissures. In the southern portion, near the eastern side, is a deep 
gorge, canoe shaped, with steep escarpments rising eight hundred to one thousand 
feet above the valley, through which the Sequatchie River flows. This is the 
Sequatchie Valley, which separates the lower end of the table-land into two 
distinct arms. Through the eastern arm the Tennessee River breaks, and after 
flowing down the valley for a distance of sixty miles, turns at Guntersville, Ala., 
and soon afterwards cuts through the western arm fifty miles from the Tennessee 
line. This Sequatchie trough is one hundred and sixty miles in length, the Ten- 
nessee end being sixty miles and the Alabama end one hundred. 

The eastern arm of the coal-field, on the western side of which this remark- 
able valley passes, is six to eight miles wide. Between the Tennessee River and 
the Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad it is called Raccoon Mountain. Sepa- 
rated from this by "Will's Valley, Lookout Mountain rises up in massive propor- 
tions. The latter is an outlier of the Cumberland Table-land, and geologically is 
closely allied to it. 

Passing now to the northeast corner of the coal region, we find a quadri- 
lateral block almost severed from the mountain mass by the valleys of Elk Fork 
and Cove Creek — the former running northeast and emptying into the Cumber- 
land River; the latter running southeast into the Clinch River. 

The average height of the Cumberland Table-land is two thousand feet above 
tidewater, but some of the ridges of the northeastern part rise to a much greater 
height, reaching at places, as at Cross Mountain, three thousand three hundred 
and seventy feet, and at Butt Mountain, near Coal Creek, three thousand five 
hundred. The Valley of Cove Creek is two thousand three hundred feet lower 
than the high points of Cross Mountain. The part of the Valley of East Ten- 
nessee immediately contiguous to the mountain is about one thousand feet above 
the sea; so that, viewed from that valley, the Cumberland Table-land stands out 
with singular boldness and sharpness of outline. Everywhere in the northern 
part it is marked by a succession of clifi's elevated one above the other, with 
intervening wooded slopes. On the eastern side, parallel with the main jnountain 
mass, and separated from it b}^ a narrow vale, is a steep, roof-like sandstone ridge, 
with the layers upturned on their edges, the only access being through a few gaps 
like that of Coal Creek. This ridge is known as Walden's Ridge. Following 
this ridge southward, the name is applied to the whole arm between Sequatchie 
Valley and the Valley of East Tennessee. 

We have said that this coal region is sheeted with a thick conglomerate 
sandstone; but upon this sheet, a short distance from the edges of the precipice, 
other strata are superimposed, rising in some places one thousand feet and more 
above the conglomerate or general surface, and forming, as it Avere, mountains 
upon the top of the table-land. In the northern part of the coal region, its 
plateau character is destroyed by these superincumbent mountains. 



392 TENNESSEE. 

While there should be a division of tlic Tennessee coal-field into lower^ 
middle and upper measures, from the fact tliat the false measures contain work- 
able coal, and that tiie true upper measures apjiear only north of Emery River, 
yet the line of demarkation between the last two has not been so well defined, 
and the usual classification has been into upper and lower measures, the division 
being the thick conglomerate which gives the clitf-like appearance to the moun- 
tain on its western side. The second conglomerate or sandstone whicli caps the 
plateau throughout its length is over what should be called the middle measures — 
reall)" the lower measures of Pennsylvania. 

Including the upper and lower coal measures, there are seven strata of coal, 
aggregating a thickness of from seven to fourteen and a half feet. Man}^ of these 
beds, however, are too thin to work, and aie given merely to show the extent of 
the coal measures. 

The lower measures, though irregular and uncertain, supply a large amount 
of co:d in White, Putnam, Overton, Fentress, Franklin and Marion Counties. 
The scams in these counties are of good thickness and afford coal of excellent 
quality. 

The main seam of the upper measures on the western side of the table-land 
is the Sewauee. This seam will average four and a half feet in thickness — its 
largest development being ten feet four inches, and its least two feet. 

The Sewanee seam furnishes a larger amount of coal than any other single 
seam in Tennessee, and has all the qualities that combine to make a useful and 
valuable coal. It varies in some of its characteristics and constituents in different 
localities, but that is a common freak of all coal scams in every coal-field. It 
makes a good coke, is a good steam-making coal, makes a hot, durable fire in the 
grate, and is nearly free from sulphur. It is found at a certain elevation all over 
the table-land, but in tlie horizontal strata of the Coal Creek and Winter's Gap 
section of the field it has probably sunk far beneath the surface. It is the main 
seam of Walden's Ridge, and continues with much persistency from Chattanooga 
to Coal Creek. Where the ridge is regular in surface and the strata in place, the 
seam is of regular thickness and easily worked, with a certainty of obtaining a 
constant supply; but where tlie strata are broken by ravines or gorges, it is also 
disturbed — sometimes lost entirely, and again rising into great thickness. 

Walden's Ridge is an outlier of the Cumberland Table-land, for the greater 
part of its length a vast wall of upturned rocks ranging from six hundred to 
twelve hundred feet high. This singular formation is best seen north of Big 
Emery Gap. A base line drawn horizontally througli the ridge would probably 
give a width of twelve hundred feet. The line of demarkation between the 
inclined strata of Walden's Ridge and the horizontal layers of the Cumberland 
Mountains is sharp and well defined. AVithin a few feet one steps from the 
almost vertical sandstones of Walden's Ridge to those of the Cumberland Table- 
land lying horizontally. Behind he sees the steep inclined crags of Emery Gap, 
and in front the shales, slates and sandstones lying one on the other. This ridge 
is most continuous and conspicuous in its tilted strata from Big Emery Gap to 
near Carey ville ; but those peculiar characteristics are gradually lessened to the 
southwest from Emery Gap, until near Chattanooga the dip of the strata is very 
slight, and its top, instead of being a narrow ridge, flattens out into a plateau six 
or eight miles wide. The greatest action of the downthrow, therefore, took place 
between Emery Gap and Careyville ; and to its action, says Prof. Lesley, is due 
the preservation of the numerous, beds of coal in the high mountains on Poplar 
Creek, at Winter's Gap and on Coal Creek. 

It has been assumed that the inclined seams of Walden's Ridge pass down 
under the surface strata of the Cumberland Mountains and become as nearlj" 



TENNESSEE. 393 

horizon tsil as the coals of that formation. No accurate demonstration of this has 
ever heen made, but tlie record of the borings of the salt-well at Winter's Gap, 
though not strictly accurate, gives an idea upon which may be based some found- 
ation for the truth of this theory. 

On the western side of the coalfield the general dip of the strata is slightly 
to the northeast. The elevation of the sub-carboniferous limestone on the moun- 
tain-side near Tracy City is about sixteen hundred feet above the sea. On a direct 
east line, near the foot of AValden s Kidge, tlic same rock is only about nine hun- 
dred feet above the sea. On the line of the Tennessee and Pacific road, in Putnam 
County, the limestone is about fourteen hundred feet above the sea, while in a 
direct east line, near Winter's Gap, in the valley, it is only eight hundred feet 
above the sea-level. The level of the valley at Cowan is nine hundred and 
seventy-three feet above sea level, and the level of the Sewanee seam at Tracy 
City is nine hundred and forty-nine feet higher. This seam dips to the southeast 
about eight feet to the mile. Hence, h'om its location in Fentress, in the fifty 
miles distance to Winter's Gap, it would be deep down under the horizontal 
strata of the high mountains, though coming up again above the valley in 
Waldcn's Ridge. 

Towering high above the valley, in Anderson, Morgan and Campbell 
Counties, is the series of mountains heretofore mentioned. They reach an 
altitude of over three thousand five hundred feet above sea-level and contain 
coal seams to their very summits. Here is the equivalent of the upper measures 
of Pennsylvania. And it is safe to assume that the carboniferous strata in this 
region, estimating by the data derived from the boring of the salt-well at Winter's 
Gap, attain a thickness of full four thousand feet in a direct vertical line from the 
top of the American Knob or Brushy Mountain to the lowest sub-conglomerate 
coal. At Careyville, Prof. Safford determined the elevation of Cross Mountain, 
with nine seams of coal, to be three thousand three hundred and seventy feet 
above the valley. This is the northeastern end of the upper measures, as the still 
higher Brushy Mountain is near the southwestern end. In this distance of about 
forty miles is the series of high ranges and peaks alluded to above. Hence we 
have in this distance an area of about two thousand square miles, the greater 
portion of which contains, above water-level, from four to seven seams of coal 
over three feet thick, thus showing, in this part of the Tennessee coal-field alone, 
an extent of thickness and a number of seams available in the future beyond the 
previous expectations of geologists. 

IRON ORES. 

The State of Tennessee contains every variety of iron ore known to commer- 
cial use, except the spathic carbo.iate. The area of the magnetic ores and of the 
azoic hematites is not large, yet in the limited area where found the magnetic ore 
exists in large quantity. The mass of unaltered deposit ores, however, is beyond 
the possibility of any accurate computation, and the area in which they are con- 
tained comprises nearly three-fourths of the State. 

Geographically, these ores may be classed as the East Tennessee Iron Region, 
the Cumberland Mountain Iron Region and the Middle Tennessee Iron Region. 
Geologically, they belong to the metamorphic, the lower and upper Silurian, the 
sub-carboniferous and the carboniferous periods. Physically, they are vein, strati- 
fied and deposit ores, and in practical nomenclatures of ores they are magnetic, 
specular, red hematite— or really hematite— limonite, (frequently called brown 
hematite,) red fossil or lenticular red hematite and carbonate of iron. 

The limonites are found over the largest territory, and have been most gener- 
ally used of the two chief ores of iron. They are found in nearly every county 
in the State, in greater or less quantities, from the North Carolina line to the 



394 TENNESSEE. 

sand belt which borders on the Mississippi River. In some counties the quantity- 
is enormous; in otliers only scattered specimens; and the quality is equally vari- 
able. Some beds are almost chemically free from phosphorus or sulphur, while in 
others those injurious elements are found to a greater or less extent. 

In East Tennessee this ore lies in a scries of ridges running northeast and 
southwest, its greatest development being on the east side, on the western slopes 
of the Chilhowee and Unaka Mountains and their tributary ridges. Tliroughout 
the entire breadth of the State, in the counties of Johnson, Carter, Unicoi, Wash- 
ington, Greene, Cocke, Sevier, Blount, Monroe and Polk, there may truly be said 
to be one continuous bed of limonite, at some points in immense masses like 
stratified or boulder rocks, and at others intermingled with the soil, but yielding 
large quantities of ore when subjected to the process of washing. The ores of 
this lead are all in the lower Silurian, and usually lie in slates or between the 
Chilhowee sandstones and dolomites of the Knox or Quebec periods, frequently 
intermingled or deposited between masses of the latter. In this position it is 
found in a matrix of red or yellow clay, from the size of coarse sand to large 
boulders. These are the ores from which a large part of the iron of the United 
States was made in times past, and many beds are now worked in Pennsylvania, 
New York and Massachusetts from which ore was taken a hundred years ago. 
The unsystematic and robbery-like character of obtaining the ore from many of 
the banks in Tennessee has greatly impaired their value, and in some cases appa- 
rently exhausted the supply of ore. 

The limonite of this lead varies very greatly in quality, some being very free 
from any impurity-^almost pure hydrated oxide of iron — but the greater part 
contains silica, alumina, phosphorus' and sulphur in greater or less proportions; 
none to such an extent as to make it worthless. In some beds manganese prevails 
in such proportion as to make the manufacture of speigeleisen or ferro-manganese 
a possible source of profit. These deposits become more vast in size toward the 
southeast corner of the State; and the deposits on Tellico River and Lee's Creek, 
between the Little Tennessee and Hiawassee Rivers, challenge the admiration of 
the geologist and practical iron manufticturer. 

At intervals in every ridge of the Knox dolomite formation beds of limonite 
are found. Some of them appear to be of considerable extent, though but few of 
them have been opened. When opened, the quality of the ore has proven to be 
good. On the summit of Walden's Ridge, at various points from Emery Gap to 
Careyville, beds of limonite are found, whicli are no doubt the result of local 
change of the carbonate of iron of the coal formation. 

The largest body of limonites in the State is found in Middle Tennessee, in 
what has been usiially called the Western Iron Belt. This vast deposit covers 
irregularly an area forty miles wide, and extending entirely across the State from 
North to South. It comprises the entire area of the counties of Wayne, Law- 
rence, Lewis, Perry, Hickman, Humphreys, Dickson, Houston, Montgomery, 
Stewart, Benton, Decatur, and part of Hardin. 

The surftice geology of this region belongs to the sub-carboniferous. It is in 
fact the counterpart of the Cumberland plateau of the east with the coal-measure 
rocks swept away. The general elevation of the corresponding strata underlying 
tiie coal-measure rocks is but a few feet more than that of Lawrence and Hickman 
Counties. Almost at an identical level on each side of the Middle Tennessee 
basin occur the same characteristic rocks. The vast body of coal which once may 
have extended from Kentucky to Alabama is gone; but deposited in its underlying 
strata from the slow action of ages now remain immense bodies of iron ore, in 
quantity and quality hardly surpassed by any like area in the United States. In 
the injurious elements of phosphorus and sulphur these ores frequently go down 



TENNESSEE. 395 

to a mere trace, while they never rise to such an extent as to be in the slightest 
degree injurious for the very best grades of foundry irons. 

The location of this ore has been stated to be an elevated plateau-land, yet it 
is well watered with many springs, and is also intersected witht streams which 
tlovv west from the Middle Tennessee basin, being cut through on the north by 
tiie Cumberland River, while the western edge is intersected from north to south 
—the entire middle of the State — by the Tennessee River. All these streams cut 
down through the sub-carboniferous strata into the lower limestones, thus afford- 
ing ample facility for obtaining flux in the manufacture of iron. The two great 
rivers named also afford cheap transportation to market, while other means of 
transportation and access to this region is afforded by the Memphis branch of the 
Louisville and Kashville Railroad, through Montgomery and Stewart Counties; 
the Nashville and Northwestern, through Dickson, Humphreys and Benton; a 
narrow-gauge south from Dickson station into Hickman County, and the railroad 
from Columbia, through Lawrence County, to Florence, Ala. 

Along the western foot of the Cumberland Mou;itains and the Middle Ten- 
nessee basin, in a formation identical with that where the ores of Stewart, 
Montgomery and Hickman are found, exist some beds of limonite, the extent of 
which has not been fully determined. They are found chiefly in the counties of 
White, Warren, Putnam and Overton. At several points tliese beds appear to be 
of valuable extent. 

Red Fossil Ore. — The next ore to be considered— and though occupying a less 
area, probably not less extensive in quantity — belongs to the true hematite series, 
and is known to mineralogy and the manufacturer as the red fossil ore, but is 
known locally in Tennessee as dyestone. It is almost entirely confined to East 
Tennessee, but almost three-fourths of the pig iron made in the State since 1870 
was made from it. 

The geological position of this ore is in the Clinton group of the Niagara 
period, below the black shale of the Devonian formation. In this State there are 
usually but thin strata intervening between the two, and while the latter is fre- 
quently found outcropping, it does not mean that the ore is found underneath it.' 
This is the case all around the Middle Tennessee basin ; but in East Tennessee, 
all along the western base of the Cumberland Mountains, from Chattanooga to 
Cumberland Gap, the two strata are found in close conjunction, and where one 
exists it is certain that the other is to be found in that vicinit}^ though it may be 
covered with drift. This ore is one of the most persistent strata of the Apala- 
chian geological system. It is found in New York bordering Lake Ontario, 
curving northward on the west and southward on the east, sinking there beneath 
the Hamilton shales and slates; rising again in Pennsylvania, and continuing 
thence in an almost unbroken outcrop southwest into the heart of the State of 
Alabama. The seams of ore in this State, however, are much thicker than in 
Penns.ylvania, and besides the regular, continuous seam at the foot of the Cum- 
berland Mountains, there is an independent seam almost as continuous, and at 
places much thicker, in what is'called White Oak Mountain, a high ridge entering 
the State from Georgia, in the county of James, and, passing northward, is con- 
tinuous to Virginia, though the northern end, in the county of Hancock, is called 
Powell's Mountain. This is the Mountour Ridge of Pennsylvania. This ridge 
m Pennsylvania is only twenty-seven miles long, and from it in 1846 Prof Rogers 
states that twenty furnaces, making sixty thousand tons of iron per annum, were 
deriving their supply of ore; and in 1881 there were still nine large furnaces 
deriving their supply in whole or in part from this same ridge. The White Oak 
Mountain has a continuous length in East Tennessee of over one hundred miles. 



396 TENNESSEE 

This red fossil ore is also found in several detached ridges, fnjin three to ten 
miles long, which lie parallel with the White Oak Mountain, at intervals, in a 
general southwest and northeast direction. 

This ore is less variable in quality than the linionites, and the analj^sis of a 
specimen from one point in a leading range will usually be identical with that 
from another point ten, twenty or fifty miles distant. Below water level the ore 
on the White Oak Mountain, and at a ceitain depth the ore in the seam at the 
foot of the Cumberland Mountain, becomes poorer in iron and richer in lime. 
Hence, for the })resent, mining is stopped wiien this hard and poor ore is reached. 
The proper course would be to mix it, as done in Pennsylvania, with the richer 
soft ore from near the surface. 

Two other bodies of this ore are detached from the East Tennessee Valley 
proper. These are in Elk Fork Valley and Sequatchie Valley. The former is 
about twenty-five miles long, and extends into Kentucky; the latter is about 
sixty miles long, and extends into Alabama. Throughout the whole length of 
these valleys the red fossil ore appears, dipping slightly to the cast. On the 
opposite side of the mountain, at its eastern base, along the foot of Walden's 
Ridge, the ore dips to the w^est. Hence, if the ore is continuous for the eight to 
ten Loiles of distance under the intervening carboniferous strata, the amount of 
iron ore thus stored away for future use is simply enormous. The ore on the cast 
side of the mountain is three feet thick, and in the vallej^s much thicker. There- 
fore, even if containing only thirty per cent, of iron, the amount of available ore 
the seam would yield to capital invested in scientific mining will equal if not 
surpass that of any known deposit of ore in the world. 

At present the mode of mining this ore is to get the ore on the cheapest plan 
possible, without the slightest reference to the future. In the seam at the foot of 
the mountain it occurs in a series of knobs, with short, narrow valleys between 
them. The ore is robbed from the knobs by rough tunnels as long as they think 
it pays, and then that knob is abandoned and another attacked. No mining is 
done below level of the little branches. In White Oak ^Mountain the dirt and 
shale is stripped with picks and shovels olf the seam of ore until the wall of 
shale reaches a height or thickness of six or eight feet. The stripped ore is then 
taken out and the rest abandoned. In so-called w^orked-out leases near Ooltewah 
are thousands of tons of oi-e which, l)y intelligent mining, can now be gotten out 
as cheaply as has been any which had the thinner covering. The price of this 
ore in Chattanooga ranges from $2 to $2.50 per ton. 

The seams of this- ore have very superior facilities for transportation. The- 
Tennessee River runs parallel between the White Oak Mountain seam and that 
of Shin Bone Ridge, at the foot of tlie Cumljerland Mountain. The latter has 
also the Cincinnati Southern Railway in a few hundred yards of it for nearly 
seventy miles. It is also accessible by the Knoxville and Ohio road at Coal Creek 
and Careyville. The White. Oak Mountain ore is cut through by the East Ten- 
nessee, Virginia and Georgia Railroad near Ooltewah, and also by its Red Clay 
extension, and by the Knoxville and Ohio branch of that road from Knoxville to 
Kentucky, near the town of Clinton. The Tennessee River also cuts it at 
Welker's, in Roane County. The Tennessee River also cuts through the Half 
Moon Island bed for a distance of ten miles. A system of cheap narrow-gauge 
roads would biing to the river and railroads in short distances a lai-ge amount of 
ore now too far distant for hauling by teams. 

The red fossil ore has not been found in any part of the Middle Tennessee 
Region. In Overton County a hematite ore is found, locally called dyestoue, but 
it is not the same as the East Tennessee dyestone, nor is it known to exist in 
large quantities. In the county of Wayne are three knobs which contain a large: 



TENNESSEE. 397 

amount of hematite. Its geological p()siti(m has not been exactly determined. 
The location is near Clifton, on the Tennessee River, and the ore is of good 
quality. It was once used in a furnace near by, and some of it has been shipped 
off and used for paint. 

The third most important ore, as respects quantity, in the State of Tennessee 
is the carbonate of iron of the coal measures. This is, in England and Europe, 
one of the chief ores from which iron is made. It is used to some extent in Ohio 
and Pennsylvania, but as 3'et not at all in Tennessee, though it is one of tlie most 
abundant and easily worked ores. There are points in the Tennessee coal-fleld 
where it can be mined very cheaplj^ It is found in the State underlying the coal 
seam worked at Coal Creek and at Careyville; at the latter it is specially abun- 
dant. There are a number of Ictyers of it in the Tennessee coal-field. 

The least abundant but most valuable iron ores of the State are the ores 
found in the metamorphic rocks, from which Bessemer steel pig may be made. 
There are the hematite and the magnetic. These are found at intervals in the 
strata just edging on the Potsdam sandstone and in the hornblendic gneiss of 
Carter and Johnson Counties. The hematite has not been developed to any 
special extent ; hence its quantity is not known. In Sullivan and Carter Counties, 
in the foot-hills of the Holston Mountains, is found hematite ore of very compact 
structure. It has been used in forges and made good iron, but no sufficient explo- 
ration has ever been made to test its quality, though small pieces of it are 
scattered over a large area of country. 

The magnetic ore exists in a limited area, but is in large ((uantity and of 
excellent quality. Little beyond explorations for the investment of capital and a 
little digging for forges has been done in this State, but beyond the North Caro- 
lina line very extensive excavations have been made for the owners of the East 
Tennessee and Western North Carolina Railroad, and an immense amount of ore 
uncovered. In the eastern part of Johnson County magnetic ore is also found, 
hut transportation is so far distant that there is no likelihood of its development 
for many years, 

MARBLE. 

Nearly all the Tennessee marble belongs to the variegated class ; some has a 
solid drab or dove color, and in other localities it is gray or pinkish gray. Of 
this class it has no rival east of the Rocky Mountains, except in a limited area of 
the State of Vermont. The sienna and variegated marbles of Italy have been 
supplanted by the more brilliant stone from the land whose people delight to call 
it the Switzerland of America. 

The geological position of this marble is in the upper part of the lower 
Silurian, one of the strata of the group of Trenton limestones, being the next to 
the lowest member of that series. In the county of Henry and also in Benton 
are found local beds of marble which are in the Niagara formation; but they, 
while of truly handsome appearance, do not have the brilliancy of tlie East Ten- 
nessee marbles. In Lincoln Couuty a variety of shell marble is found in tlie 
Trenton limestones which very much resembles the true variegated species, and 
may afford handsome blocks of connnercial size; but by far the greatest body of 
marble is found in East Tennessee, and from that section alone shipments from 
the State have been made. 

The original opening of the Tennessee marble was in Hawkins County, and 
until within a few years past there was its greatest development. Now the 
largest business is done in Knox County, and there are quarries in Hawkins, 
Knox, Hamblen, Jefferson, Loudon, Monroe and Bradley. 

The marble beds of Hawkins County are in a narrow ridge running northeast 
and southwest with the general line of all East Tennessee strata, the outcropping 



398 TENNESSEE. 

being usually on the western side of the ridge. This ridge commences about six 
miles north of Rogersville and ends abruptly about eight miles southeast of that 
place, being apparently isolated, though careful examination proves that its strata 
connects with Clinch Mountain on the north and continues in the strata to the 
south, though losing for some distance its elevated ridge-like position above the 
general face of the country. The railroad from Rogersville connects with the 
main East Tennessee, Virginia and Georgia Railroad. 

The amount of marble in Hawkins County is very great, and therein are 
found variegated marbles of more brilliancy than in any other section. The chief 
markets of this marble are Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York, Boston and other 
cities. It is seldom used for outside work, but from selected blocks very hand- 
some and durable door-steps and banisters have been made, which stood the wear 
of weather and time equally with any stone. 

Jefferson County contains a large quantity of marble, from the beds of which 
beautiful specimens have been ol)tained, but no extensive quarrying has yet 
been done. 

The largest business now carried on in quarrying and shipping marble is in 
Knox Count3^ The marble of Knox is more varied in its quality and the uses to 
which it is adapted than that of Hawkins County, and the facilities of transporta- 
tion are much better. The quality varies from the plain gra^'-colored building 
stone to the most beautiful pink and variegated ornamental marble. The gra}' or 
whitish drab Avith pink tinge has no superior as a building stone. It has been 
used in the United States Custom-houses at Knoxville and at Memphis and the 
State House at Albany, New York, and in many other private and public build- 
ings in other cities. For durability and resistance to moisture it has no superior 
in the world. An analysis gives its contents of carbonate of lime at 98.436, and 
tests show its capacity to bear 10,000 pounds pressure to the square inch. This 
marble has been sent to all parts of this country from San Francisco to New York 
City. The interior of the Governor's room in the new capitol at Albany is built 
of it, trimmed with Mexican onyx. When polished it has a rich mottled pink 
color, but bush-hammered and rough for building purposes, has the appearance 
of being a white marble. The demand for the marble is constantly increasing, 
and there is still room for capital invested in quarries located near to transport- 
ation. 

TIMBER. 

Tennessee possesses an unbounded source of wealth in her vast forests of 
hardwood timber. On this subject I quote the following from the Baltimore 
Manufacturers' Record of October 11, 1884, which is part of an able and interest- 
ing series of articles by Mr. Charles H. Wells on the " Timber Resources of the 
South : " 

" In conclusion, I wi 1 speak of the Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama and Louisiana 
tracts — the most beautiful lumber to be found anywhere on the American Conti- 
nent. Beginning with Tennessee, let us discard the stilts of the scientists and the 
iron tracks of the four great railroads penetrating the country, and take it afoot 
along these sparkling streams, across the hills and dales teeming with redundant 
crops of grass and grain, and over the mountains bristling with unbroken forests 
of primeval growth, and, ' with an ejG single to business,' see what there is to 
lure the ironmasters of more crowded regions to bring their money and their 
labor here, or to induce the shrewd lumberman to move his mills and enterprise 
trom the rigorous, wintry regions of the great Northern forests, rapidly nearing 
exhaustion, to this almost virgm field of production in his peculiar line. 

''Beginning with Holston Mountains, a high line of hills, we tramp northeast- 
ward. The distance is quite thirty miles to the Virginia line, and it is nearly all 



TENNESSEE. 39^ 

t 

in forest; till we follow it some twenty miles there is no great quantity of high- 
grade tmiber. The trees are not so large as upon other ranges where the soil is 
richer; still there will be a great deal of timber taken from it at no distant day 
Ihere is a large growth of medium-sized black or yellow pine on it. On the 
btony Creek side it has been considerably denuded in making charcoal for the 
forges and furnaces. On the northwestern side, next to the Holston River, little 
It any cutting has been done, and there is much good timber-some white pine 
arge quantities of white oak, red and black oak and chestnut, and in many of 
the hollows large and excellent yellow poplar. This mountain will yield a lar-e 
supply ot the best tan bark-chestnut, oak and hemlock-as these trees are ve^y 
plentiful m many localities. Reaching 'Cross Mountain.' we enter a mao-nifi- 
cently timbered region, being the whole of 'Shady,' and the slopes of%he 
Holston and Iron Mountain on the Virginia line. The growth of white pine in 
the eastern part of 'Shady' for miles rivals such forests in the Northern States 
as have supplied so long the large demands of the cities and towns there. Hem- 
lock, cherry, poplar, the oaks, maples and chestnut are of grc:,t size, and are 
abundant all through 'Shady' and down the slopes of the mountains One 
strange fact is prescnted-there is not a hickory tree or sapHng to be found in the 
entire region. Just beyond 'Shady' the great 'White Top' Mountain, 5.000 
feet in height, forms the. boundary line between Tennessee and Xorth Carolina 
Here we are again in the home of the white pine, and it is the king of timber 
trees here. A belt of it runs along 'Stone Mountain,' through Johnson County 
and here and there through Carter County, all the way^o the 'Roan' and 
iellow Mountains. There is a great deal of very valuable timber of all 
varieties I Iiave named in Johnson County, on the east side of Roar's Creek, up 
to the State line of North Carolina and Virginia. Doe Mountain has a little but 
not much good timber on it, and in Carter County there is not now remaining 
much good timber, except near the North Carolina line. In the broken and 
mountainous district lying above Hampton, and between the Doe, Watauga and 
Elk, there is one block over one hundred miles square of unbroken forest, worth 
a mint of money to some energetic man. In the ' Walnut Hills ' District is found 
the most beautiful walnut lumber in abundance, while cherry is also plentiful. 
The Cranberry Narrow-Gauge Road' has opened up all the 'Crab Orchard' 
District in Carter County, and many mills are now at work cutting hundreds of 
thousands of feet of the finest cherry and ash and a good deal of walnut, and still 
more poplar and oak timber, taxing the httle railroad to its utmost to move it 
making Johnson City the largest lumber depot on the East Tennessee, Virginia 
and Georgia Railroad. An important factor to be taken in consideration is the 
ow price of land all through the State. Those who own the property are willing 
to sell cheap. r r j o 

MANUFACTURES. 

In facilities and advantages for general manufacturing Tennessee is unsur- 
passed, and there is probably no State in the South that is making more rapid 
and Healthy progress m the development of industrial interests. While her manu- 
lactures are wonderfully increasing in number and extent, there is a very marked 
diversity that will prevent any undue expansion of one industrv to the ne-lect of 
otliers The manufacture of pig iron has possibly attracted mm-e attention than 
any other one industry, but yet there has been no such increase in that business 
as to overshadow other interests or to draw into it too much capital A wide 
diversity of manuflictures is essential to the healthy, permanent growth of the 
bouth, and Tennessee is doing her full share in this direction. The increase in 
p.g iron production of late years has been very great, but hardly out of propor- 
tion to the increase in the foundries, machine shops and agricultural-impleinent 



400 TENNESSEE. 

factories, in which pig iron is used as a raw material. It is true that a consider- 
able amount of Tennessee pig iron is shipped to the West and North, but it is 
also true that tlie home consumption is steadily increasing, and that a very large 
proportion of Tennessee iron now finds a market in that State. In Nashville, 
Chattanooga, Memphis, South Pittsburgh and other places there has been a remark- 
able iiicrea-e in iron-working establishments, which are now furnishing a large 
amount of the machinery needed in the manufactures of that State, besides ship- 
ping largely to the adjoining States. In l.SSO Tennessee produced 70,873 tons of 
pig iron, while in 1885 the production was 101,199 tons, or more than double. A 
number of furnaces are now under construction, and others are projected, assuring 
a very largely increased production of iron in this State in 1887. 

Tennessee is the first of the central Southern States to make Bessemer steel 
an experimental plant at Chattanooga having proved such a success that the Roane 
Iron Company, of the same place, have built a large Bessemer rail mill, to be 
started up about March, 1887. The activity in the iron interests is very great, 
and especially is this noticeable in the building of diversified industries, such as 
stove works, pipe works, machine shops, foundries and kindred enterprises that 
will take the pig iron from the furnaces, turn it into finished goods, and thus save 
to the South the expense of shipping pig iron North and buying it back in the 
shape of agricultural implements, stoves, &c. 

According to the last census, there were 4,326 manufacturing establishments 
in Tennessee, having an aggregate capital of a little over $20,000,030 and employ- 
ing 22,345 hands, the total value of the products being $37,074,880. There were 
990 flour and grist mills, with a capital of $3,595,585; 19 cotton goods factories, 
capital $1,184,600; 43 iron and steel works, capital $3,681,776; 770 saw and plan- 
ing mills, capital over $2,100,000; and 108 w^oolen goods factories, capital $418,664. 
These figures, however, give but little idea of the present extent and value of the 
industrial interests of the State. Since 1880 there has been an enormous increase 
in the manufacturing interests of the State. Not only in the iron interests, such 
as furnaces, machine shops, foundries, &c., is this true, but in all other industries. 
Wood-working factories of all kinds, from the small portable saw mill to the large 
planing mills, sash and door factories and similar enterprises, have increased won- 
derfully. In the manufacture of cotton and M^oolen goods the same rapid growth 
is seen, while in flour and grist mills, tobacco factories, etc., great progress has 
likewise been made. 

As illustrating the increase in manufactures in Tennessee, a few facts gath- 
ered from the " Revised Hand-Book of Tennessee," prepared by A. J. McWhirter, 
Commissioner of Agriculture, Statistics, Mines and Immigration, will be of gen- 
eral interest. From this book the following figures are mainly gathered: In 
1880 Chattanooga had a population of 13,000; in 1885 her population is 25,000, or 
nearly double. In 1880 Hamilton County, in which Chattanooga is situated, had 
only $2,045,000 invested in manufactures— the number of hands employed being 
2,100, and the aggregate value of the products being $3,230,000; in 1885, on 
January 1st, Chattanooga alone is credited with having $5,600,000 invested in 
manufjictures, employing 4,213 hands, and producing in 1884 products valued at 
nearly $11,000,000. In Nashville the increase, while not quite so great, has still 
been very large. The same authority gives the statistics of manufactures of that 
city January 1, 1885, as follows: 

CENSUS RETl'RNS 
FOR l88o. 

Number of manufactories, estimated 800 268 

Capital employed $6,160,500 $3,892,380 

Average number of hands employed 7»6i5 4,79' 

. Total amount paid in wages during the year 1884 $2,082,900 $1,312,765 

Value of materials 8,760,000 5.312,527 

Value of products 14,070,000 8,597,278 



TENNESSEE. 401 

These figures will give some idea of wliat has been done in two cities in 
Tennessee in the last five years in the way of developing manufactures. Knox- 
ville, Memphis, Columbia and other cities, as well as the small towns and out of 
the way places, have also done their full share in this splendid progress. 

Tennessee is abundantly supplied with the materials and facilities needed for 
the development of great manufacturing interests. Her mines of iron ore, coal, 
marble and other minerals are inexhaustible; her timber resources are wonder- 
fully great; her water-powers are unfailing; her climate is all that could be 
desired, and her transportation facilities, already excellent, are being steadily 
increased by the building of new railroads and the improvement of her water- 
ways. With all these advantages she combines a splendid soil capable of 
producing the most bountiful crops, while the healthfulness of the State is 
remarkably good. Her manufacturing industries have made great progress 
durmg the last five years, but the next five will in all probability show a still 
more rapid advance. 

AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. 

The soil and climate of Tennessee are suited to the growth of every variety 
of agricultural product known to the temperate zone, and all the cereals, vege- 
tables and fruits are grown in abundance. In 1880 there were in the State 165,650 
farms covering 20,666,915 acres, or about three-fourths of the land surface of the 
State— an average of about 135 acres to a farm. Of this area 8,496,556 acres were 
improved and 12,170,359 acres unimproved. The value of farms, including land, 
fences and buildings, was $206,749,837; the value of flirmiug implements and 
machinery, $9,054,863; the value of live stock on farms, $43,651,470; the esti- 
mated value of all farm productions, $62,076,311. The cotton production of the 
State was 330,6 J I bales, Tennessee being ninth in order of production in the list 
of cotton growing States. There were raised 62,764,429 bushels of corn, 7,331,353 
bushels of wheat and 4,722,190 bushels of oats. The production of tobacco was 
29,365,052 pounds on 41,532 acres. The value of orchard and market garden 
products was $1,148,113. 

The extent of the live stock and dairying interest is shown by the following 
figures: In 1880 there were in the State 439,617 horses and mules, 27,312 working 
oxen, 303,903 milch cows and 452,462 other cattle, 672,789 sheep (exclusive of 
spring lambs) and 2,160,495 hogs. There were 17,886,369 pounds of butter and 
98,740 pounds of cheese made on farms in 1879. The yield of wool (spring clip 
of 1880) was 1.918,295 pounds. 

On the subject of the agricultural interests of the State I quote from Hon. A. 
J. McWhirter's able and accurate description of the three civil divisions of the 
State — East Tennesee, Middle Tennessee and West Tennessee : 

East Tennessee is that portion of the State that lies between the Unaka 
and Smoky Mountains on the east, and a line draAvn from north to south centrally 
across the Cumberland plateau on the west. It embraces thirty-four counties, 
and is much the oldest settled portion of the State. It is literally a land of misty 
mountains, of pensive vales and of swift waters. 

The agricultural interest of East Tennessee is diversified and jn-ogressive. 
Under the lead of a few intelligent farmers and the inspiration of the East Ten- 
nessee Farmers' Convention, great changes for the better have been wrought 
within the past few^ years. Improved breeds of cattle, sheep and hogs, and better 
methods of cultivation, have been pretty generally introduced. All the cereals 
flourish here, and all the grasses of the temperate zone, including blue-grass. All 
the fruits common to the Middle States are successfully grown, especially apples, 
pears, cherries, plums and grajjes. It is urged by those who, from experience and 
study, are best acquainted with the industry, that this is the finest grape region 



402 TENNESSEE. 

on the continent, California not excepted. Great things are predicted in this 
direction, and many believe that the chief wine center of the future in the United 
States will be within this mountain-bound and mountain decked region of Ten- 
nessee. Lands suitable for grape culture can be purchased very cheap. 

Immediately around Chattanooga the growth of small fruits is attracting 
much attention. There are large plnntings of strawberries and raspberries, and 
hundreds of acres, especially on Missionary Ridge, planted in these and peach and 
plum trees. This industry has already reached large proportions, and is still 
advancing under the powerful stimulus of uniform success. 

Three trunk railroads pass through East Tennessee, three others penetrate its 
borders, and several branch roads run into the more prominent mineral regions. 
The Tennessee, Holston, Clinch and French Broad Rivers furnish waterways all 
or the most of the year, and thus, with iron and water highways, the wonderful 
resources of this section find, in the main, ready outlet to the markets of the 
world. Other railroads are projected, and within a few years all the resources 
of this marvelous region will be within the easy reach of active capital and 
development. 

MiDDiiE Tennessee. — The middle division of the State of Tennessee is 
remarkable for the variety and beauty of its topography. Extending from the 
Cumberland Mountains on the east to the Tennessee River on the west, its land- 
scapes partake of all the varieties of mountains, plains, hills and valleys; of 
extensive forests ; of numerous streams, large and small — some deep and quiet, 
others noisy and swift, but all bright and pleasant lines in a charming picture. 
There is not on earth a country that fills more completely the measure of the 
beautiful. 

This section resembles a vast plain interspersed with hills and lofty knobs, 
sunny streams and waving forests, surrounded by elevated plateaus that in the 
east swell into mountains, and in the west and north to picturesque highlands. 
The usual description is that it is an extensive basin inclosed Avitli an elevated 
mountainous rim or plateau. One who views Middle Tennessee from surrounding 
heights will be reminded, provided he has read the work, of Plato's description of 
the "Lost Atlantis," that fair island on a summer sea to which tradition and 
mythology point as the eden home of the ancient gods. 

The valleys, and here and there dips in the plateau, are very fertile, and 
contain many valuable farms and much valuable farming lands. The plateau 
seems marked by nature for sheep husbandry, possessing in remarkable abundance 
the best known food for these useful animals. Tens of thousands of flocks may 
feed and flourish on the extensive sweeps of these now profitless and almost 
valueless uplands, and it is safe to predict that in the near future this inviting 
industry will be there developed on an immense scale. It is also an invitmg field 
for fruit industry, especially apples, peaches, pears, plums and grapes. These 
lands are, as a rule, the cheapest in the State. 

The valleys are all rich and well watered, and much of the plateau contains 
valuable farming lands. The lands of the Elk, Duck and Buffjilo Rivers are 
among the finest in. the world. Here again is a splendid region for sheep and 
every variety of live stock. These uplands bordering the valleys of these rivers 
are unsurpassed in the production of the native grasses, and are so extensive that 
millions of animals may roam uncrowded and fatten without let or hindrance. 
This, again, is a cheap land region — the ui)lands, not the valleys. The valley 
lands are comparatively high-priced and contain many of the finest farms in 
the State. 

The northern rim, or the highlands proper, embraces some of the best farming 
lands in Tennessee. The scenery is bold and broad, the water clear and pure>. 



TENNESSEE. 408 

and the forests in many places extensive and valuable. This is also a fine fruit' 
region, particularly for apples, peaches, grapes and berries. It is also a superb 
stock country and the home of plenty. No portion of the State offers superior 
inducements to thrifty settlers, and nowhere can more charming homes be found. 
Clarksville, a thriving, beautiful, cultured city, is the commercial and educational 
center of this fair region, and there the immigrant or capitalist may learn what 
he may wish to know of one of the most highly favored regions of the South. 
Lands in these highlands are generally rich and comparatively cheap. 

The basin of Middle Tennessee embraces ten whole counties and parts of all 
adjoining ones. It is a lake-like plain of beautiful farms dotted with island 
summits of green and groves, and seamed with brooks and rivers that glisten like 
silver in the genial sunshine. It teems with herds of lordly cattle, with whitening 
flocks on a thousand hills, with royal blooded horses whose shining coats glisten 
in the sun and whose tossing heads proudly speak of ancestral centuries. In 
summer, miles of M\aving grain, miles of green pastures threaded with murmuring 
brooks, miles of nodding forests, and an archipelago of baronial homes in the 
highest state of comfort and beauty, greet the gazer from every summit in this 
broad and matchless landscape. 

As a grain and stock country Middle Tennessee is unequalcd. The lands of 
the basin are uniformly rich and the fruit unsurpassed ; the world can't beat it for 
grass and grain and stock. For exquisite landscapes that embrace every phase of 
hill, valley, plain, mountain, forest and stream that the artist would choose for a 
perfect picture, it stands unrivaled. For homes where all the conditions unite to 
satisfy, reline and liberalize, while they stimulate to high-bred achievements and 
lordly hospitality, it is unsurpassed. The lands of this matchless region are high- 
priced, but worth the money. 

Two trunk railroads pass through Middle Tennessee, and each has many 
brandies. Another trunk road is under contract and still another projected. 
The Cumberland River, the longest for its width in the world, is navigable the 
most of the year. 

West Tennessee. — The twenty-two counties composing West Tennessee lie. 
between the Tennessee and Mississippi Rivers. The topography of this division 
is almost totally different from that of either of the other divisions of the State. 
The lofty mountams, the elevated ridges and mound-shaped knobs, characteristic 
of the other divisions, disappear or sink into rolling plains, level plateaus and 
broad bottoms, with occasionally a ridge that swells into a suggestion of mountain 
chains. Old settlers say that this region was very beautiful when first settled. 
The soil was surpassingly rich, and thousands in the older States and the older 
divisions of this State were drawn thither by stories of marvelous production. 
Counties were rapidly organized, towns built, and the foundations of many for- 
tunes successfully laid. 

This division of the State -is best described in three parts. First, the eastern 
tier of counties which skirt the Tennessee River, and those lying next to them on 
the west. Through the center of one of the former and all of the latter runs a 
ridge from north to south, separating the waters of the two great rivers that 
border West Tennessee on the er.st and west. From this ridge numerous water- 
courses, small and large, flow east into the Tennessee or west into the Mississippi. 
This ridge and the country east of it is high and broken, resembling very much 
the highlands on the east side of the Tennessee River. The land on the ridge 
and its numerous spurs is thin, and, as a rule, unsuited to cultivation ; but they 
produce exceedingly fine sheep food, and, together with the many sheltered 
hollows and slopes and nooks, would afford rich and ample pasturage summer 
and winter for thousands of flocks. As a sheep country it is equal to any in the 



404 TENNESSEE. 

world. The timber of this region is also fine and varied, and will afford fortunes 
to the enterprising of the future. These lands are very cheap. There are many 
beautiful and fertile valleys in this region that are musical with clear, perennial 
streams of purest water. Much fine stock is raised, and abundant crops of corn, 
wheat, hay and fruit. Peanuts are a staple crop in several counties and are grown 
with great success. Tobacco is extensively grown on the northern border and is 
of superior quality. All this region is finely adapted for fruit growing, and pos- 
sesses superior advantages for cattle and slieep culture on a large scale. Much of 
it is picturesque in the highest degree, presenting in charming succession hills 
and valleys mantled with trees or green with crops or golden with abundant har- 
vests, and threaded with silvery streams whose pleasant waters dance merrily over 
rocks and sand in bustling haste to join tbe great army of waves that sweep hard 
by on their march to the sea. This strip of country also abounds in marble, iron 
ore of the best quality, building and paving stone, and marl-beds rich and inex- 
haustible. The projected Nashville, Jackson and Memphis Railroad will pass 
centrally through this region from east to west, and will open its valuable 
resources to the world. The northern portion — that is Henry, Benton and Carroll 
Counties, already have railroad and river communication with the markets of the 
world, and only need capital to become valuable and enriching contributors to the 
country's commerce. The central part of West Tennessee is the richest and most 
populous. It embraces all of the counties of Hardeman, Fayette, Madison, 
Chester, Haywood, Crockett, Gibson and Weakley, the western half of Henry, 
Carroll, Henderson and McNairy, and the eastern half of Shelby, Tipton, Lauder- 
dale, Dyer and Obion. This section is tilled with populous towns, and so 
thoroughly traversed by railroads that, excepting Henderson and small portions 
of Henry and Carroll, no citizen of this central plateau is exceeding twelve or 
fourteen miles from two or more railroads, or a railroad and a river. The lands 
not butchered by reckless methods are very productive, and there is comparatively 
little land but what can be restored at small cost to original fertility. In the 
northern counties, tobacco, corn, wheat, and all the cereals, and man}' varieties of 
the grasses, are grown. In the middle and southern counties, cotton, corn, wheat, 
oats, clover, red top, oi-chard grass and millet are grown. But all over this part 
of Tennessee, tobacco, cotton, corn, wheat and all the cereals, and clover and all 
the grasses, are or may be grown successfully. It is, beyond an}- section known 
to the writer, the home of diversified production. For fruit it stands unsurpassed. 
Nowhere are peaches, strawberries, raspberries, dewberries and blackberries more 
successfully or profitably grown, and nowhere is the quality of the fruit surpassed. 
Berries of every description grow wild in luxuriance, and tliis region oecms thnh- 
natural home, where they reach a Iiigher perfection than is imssible farther north 
or farther south. The fruit industry is already large and growing, but may be 
profitably extended. Vegetable crops of every description ai-e also peculiarly 
well favored by the soil and climate of this region, and are receiving more and 
more attention. In addition to advantages of soil and climate for fniit and vege- 
tables, the market facilities of this locality are extra fine. Five trunk railroads 
pass through \Yest Tennessee, conned ing the great cities of the Nortliwest, North 
and Northeast with the cities of the South and gulf coas^.t. Thus early fruits and 
vegetables find convenient and profitable markets North, and later, Avhen the lieat 
and drought exhaust Southern crops, shipments arc turned in that direction with 
advantage. Geographical position, climate, soil and transportation facilities all 
conspire to make this region the market garden and orchard of the future. 

Nor should its fine advantages for stock raising be overlooked. It grows 
everything necessary to successful stock raising. It has miles of wild cane upon 
which cattle feed in winter; its grasses are green from seven to nine months in 



TENNESSEE. 405 

the year; it is almost literally quilted with runniug streams, and nowhere ou 
earth does the soil respond more gratefully to kind treatment. The lauds of this 
section are comparatively cheap, and there is a stronger desire for iunnigration. 
The lowlands and the bottoms of the Mississippi River j-egion are magnificently 
timbered. The world can't beat it for variety, size and merchantable value of its 
forests. Its lauds are as rich as those of the Nile, and in the parts free from over- 
flow, or where the overflows are not frequent, there are many farms of uuequaled 
productiveness. Obion, Lake and Dyer contain much land of surpassing and 
inexhaustible richness. There is also considerable of the same character of land 
in Lauderdale, Tipton and Shelby. Here, too, land is reasonably cheap, and there 
is nuich on the market. 

Nine trunk railroads penetrate West Tennessee, five passing through and 
three terminating in its borders. Two others are projected, and one— the Nash- 
ville, Jackson and Memphis— will be built soon. River transportation is had by 
the Tennessee on the east, the Mississippi ou the west, and the Hatchie and 
Forked Deer penetrating the interior. 

EDUCATION. 
The State has a good system of public schools, and there are many private 
schools of high grade. The famous Vauderbilt University is located at Nashville, 
in this State. 

SOME LAWS. 

A homestead in the possession of each head of a family, and the improve- 
ments thereon to the extent of $1,000, shall be exempt from sale under legal 
process during the life of such head of a family ; to inure to the beneflt of the 
widow, shall be exempt during the minority of their children occupying the 
same; nor shall the same be alienated without the joint consent of the husband 
and wife, when that relation exists. This exemption shall not operate against 
public taxes, nor debts contracted for the i)urchase-money of such homestead or 
improvements thereon. 

Married women owning a separate estate, settled upon them and for their 
separate use, can dispose of the same by will, deed, or otlierwise, in as full and 
complete a manner as if she were unmarried. The property of the wife is not 
liable for the debts of the husband incurred before marriage. The same law is 
applicable to the husband. Money deposited in bank by a married w^oman is free 
from the claims of husbands or their creditors. 

Under the revenue laws of Tennessee, all property owned m the State, 
excepting |1,000 worth of personalty belonging to the heads of families, is 
subject to taxation for State and county purposes. The tax on property levied 
by the State is 40 cents on the $100 worth, 10 cents of which shall be for school 
purposes. Merchants pay ad mlorem and privilege taxes amounting to 70 cents 
on the $100 worth, 10 cents of which is for free schools. Taxes are also levied 
npon a great number of privileges and upon polls, the poll-tax being applied to- 
school purposes. The county courts are authorized to levy taxes for general 
county purposes not to exceed the State tax. 



i 



INDEX. 



I 



Page. 



INTRODUCTION...., 5_57 

Condition op the South immediately after the Civil War. 5 

Agriculture 9_j^9 

Cereal Production 9 

Stock Raising -^-j^ 

Grasses ^1^^ 

Fruit Raising I5 

Trucking 26 

Poultry ■ iQ 

Bee Culture u 

Silk Culture i>j 

Jute j'j' 

Iron Interests 19 

Coal '^-^ 

Cotton Manufacturing 32 

Cotton Seed 34. 

Railroads 37 

Milling Interests 33 

Timber Resources 39 

Rosin, Pitch and Turpentine 41 

Advantages op the South 42-57 

The Saving in Fuel, Clothing, &c., by reason of Climate 42 

Health , 43 

Exemption from Insects 46 

Variety of Products 47 

Watercourses 47 

Cheapness of Land 49 

Rainfall 52 

Marls 53 

Miscellaneous 53 

MARYLAND 58-63 

Position 58 

Soil and Topography 58 

Climate 59 

Productions 5D-G0 

Cereals 59 

Tobacco 59 

Fruits and Vegetables 60 

Dairying and Stock Raising 60 

Mineral Resources 60 

Manufacturing 61 

Oysters 62 

Fish and Game 63 



408 INDEX. 

Page. 

Transportation • 63 

Education 63 

VIRGINIA 64-93 

HlSTOIilCAL 64 

Position and Area 64 

Na-Tural Divisions 65-73 

Tidewater Virginia. 65 

The Middle Country 67 

Piedmont Virginia 68 

The Blue Ridge Section 69 

The Valley of Virginia 69 

Apalachian Virginia 71 

Inland Waters 72 

Principal Rivers anq Branches 73 

Geology 73 

Climate 78 

Soils 79 

Productions 83-88 

Animal Products 83 

Vegetable Productions 84 

Timber 87 

Minerals 88- 

Coal 89 

Iron Ore 89 

Pig Iron 90 

Manufactures , 91 

Oyster Interests 92 

Educational Facilities 93 

Transportation 93 

Mineral Waters 93 

WEST VIRGINIA 94-114 

Position 94 

Topography 94 

Geology 95 

Climate 99-101 

Temperature 100 

Rainfall 100 

Agricultural Features 101-105 

Soils 101 

Productions 103 

Stock Raising 105 

Coal 105 

Iron 106 

Salt 108 

Timber 108 

Manufactures 113 

Mineral Waters 114 

Education 114 

NORTH CAROLINA 115-142 

Position and Area 115 

Topography 115 

Eastern Section lie-llS- 



INDEX. m 

I'AGE. 

Topography 116 

Boundaries 116 

Soils 117 

Productions 1 17 

Vineyards 117 

Fruits and Berries 117 

Trucking 118 

Timber 118 

Water Fowl 118 

Middle and Piedmont Section 119-122 

Boundaries 119 

Topography 119 

Productions 119 

Climate 119 

Healthfulness 120 

Water powers 120 

Sheep Husbandry 120 

Timber 120 

Tobacco 121 

Fruits 121 

Western Section 122-125 

Boundaries 122 

Topography 122 

Forests 122 

Productions 123 

Fruits 123 

Climate 123 

Soils 123 

Minerals 123 

Geology 124 

Coal ]25 

Copper 127 

Gold 127 

Iron Ores 128 

Other Minerals 135 

Precioi's Stones 138 

Manufactures 139^ 

Woods and Timbers 140 

Stock Raising 141 

Silk Culture 141 

Education 142 

SOUTH CAROLINA 14H-162 

Position 143 

Natural Divisions 143 

Coast Region 144 

Lower Pine Belt or Savanna Region 144 

Upper Pine Belt 145 

Red Hill Region 146 

Sand Hill Region 148 

Piedmont Region 149 

Alpine Region 154 

Cmmate 145, 147, 149, 151.155 



-410 INDEX. 

Page 

Soils .' 144, 145, 147, 148, 150, 154 

Productions K5, 143, M8, 149, 152, 155 

Health 1-15,118,149,153,161 

Water-powers 155 

Manufactures 157 

Minerals • • 158 

Laws 161 

GEORGIA 1G3-194 

Position and Area 163 

Topography 163 

Climate 163 

General View op the State 164 

Northwest Georgia 165 

Metamorphic Region 169 

Middle Georgia 169 

Central Cotton Belt • 172 

Long-leaf Pine and Wire-grass Region 175 

Lime-sink Region 176 

Pine Barrens, or Sandy, Wire-grass Region 177 

Pine and Palmetto Flats 178 

Coast Region 178 

Marls 178 

Ores and Minerals 179 

Agriculture 182 

Manufactures 183 

Water-powers 186 

Letter from Department of Agriculture .... 189 

FLORIDA 195-225 

Introductory 194 

Physical Geography 196-198 

Soil 198 

Productions 200-207 

Early Yegetables 200 

Tropical and Semi-tropical Fruits 202 

Orange Growing 202 

Stock Raising 207 

Fish 207 

Society 209 

Government 209 

Schools 209 

Climate 210 

Healthfulness 211 

ALABAMA 226-251 

Location 226 

Surface Contour 226 

River Systems 226 

Mountains and Table-lands 227 

Valleys 228 

Climate 228-231 

Temperature 228 

Rainfall 229 

Geological and Topographical Features 231-236 



INDEX. 411 

Pagk. 

Middle Division 281 

Northern Division 233 

Southern Division 235 

Agbicultural Features 236-240 

Soil and Productions 237 

Truck Farming 239 

Mineral Resources 240-246 

Coal 240 

. Iron Ore 241 

Timber 246 

Manueacturing 247 

Education 250 

Laws 250 

3nSSISSIPPI 272-C97 

Location 272 

Surface and Soil 1172-277 

The Alluvial Soil of the Yazoo Delta 272 

The Bluff Formation.. 274 

The Prairie Region 275 

The Tombigbee Sand Group 276 

The Ripley Group 276 

The Pine Woods Region 277 

Productions • 278 

Fruits and Vegetables 278 

Health 278 

Fruit Growing 281 

Grasses and Stock Raising 282-287 

Timber Lands 288 

Attractions of the Gulf Coast 289-291 

Timber 292 

Minerals 292 

Laws 293 

Winds and Rainfall 296 

Progress and Development 296 

LOUISIANA 298-313 

General View 298-299 

Climate 299 

Soil and Productions 300-306 

Mineral Resources 306-308 

Timber 308 

Lands 309 

Manufactures 310 

Education 310 

Laws 311 

Fish and Game 311 

New Orleans 312 

TEXAS 314-355 

Introductory 314 

Position and Area 315 

^Climate 316-320 

Temperature 316 

Hainfall and Water Supply 317 



412 INDEX. 

Page. 

Topography and Soils 830-334 

The Timbered Upland Region 320 

Southern and Coast Prairie Region 334 

Central Black Prairie Region 336 

Northwestern Red Loam Region 338 

Western and Northwestern Texas 339 

Alluvial Lands 331 

Productions 335 

Fruit Culture 336 

Grasses ; 337 

Stock Raising 338-349 

Cattle 338 

Sheep ' 344 

Mules and Horses 347 

Hogs 348 

The Angora Goat 348 

Forestry 349 

Minerals 351-353 

Manufactures S53-S55 

Education 355 

ARKANSAS 357-371 

Position and Area 357 

Surface Features 357 

Climate 358 

Rainfall 359 

Drainage 359 

Geology 360 

AGRicuLTunAjj Features 361 

Soils 363 

Fruits 363 

Stock Raising 364 

Timber 364 

Minerals 365 

Manufacturing 369 

Railroads 370 

Laws 370 

Game 371 

KENTUCKY 373-386 

Location 373 

River Frontage 372 

Climate 373 

Coal 373 

Petroleum 376 

Timber 377 

Pasturage of Woodlands 378 

Manufactures 379 

Waterways 380 

Water-powers 381 

Soil and Productions 381 

Fruits 384 

Vegetables 384 

The Blue-grass Region 384 



INDEX. 413 

Page. 

Healthpulness 385 

Proximity to Markets 385 

TENNESSEE 387-405 

Location 387 

Variety in Natural Features 387 

Topography 387 

Climate ^yfi^^i, 

Mineral Resources 390-808 

Coal ■ 390 

Iron Ores ;J93 

Marble 397 

Timber ;]98 

Manufactures 3,')0 

Agricultural Features .; 00-405 

East Tennessee 400 

Middle Tennessee 401 

West Tennessee 402 

Education 405 

Laws , 405 




NEW YORK BELTIN6 & PACKING GO. 

Warehouse: 15 PARK ROW, NEW YORK. 

TJie Oldest and Largest Manu- 
facturers in the United States of 

• In Every Form Adapted to Mechanical Purposes. • 

Belling 

For Machinery 

WITH 

Smooth Metallic Rubber 
Surface. 

This Company has manu- 
factured the largest belts made 
in the world for the principal 
elevators at Chicago, Buffalo 
and New York. 

STEAM & WATER 

HOSE 

^lain and I^ubber-Iiined. 

Rubber "Test" Hose, 
made of vulcanized Para Rub- 
ber and Carbonized Duck. 

Cotton "Cable" Hose, 
Circular, Woven, Seamless, 
Antiseptic, for the use of Steam 
and Hand Fire Engines, Force 
Pumps, Mills, Factories Steam- 
ers, and Brewer's use. 

Patent Elastic Rubkr •<• 
->BaGk Square Packing. 

Best in the "Wf^RLD for 
Packing the Piston Pods and 
Valve Stems of Steam Engines 
and Pumps. 

CORRUGATED 

Eubber Matting, Mats, 
Stair Treads, &c. 

For Halls, Flooring, Stone and 
Iron Stairways, etc. 

Adopted by the Brook- 
lyn Bridge and Ele- 
vated Railroads. 

Original Solii3 

vulcanite:- • FiMDRY • WHEGLS. 

Large Wheels made on Cast-iron Centre if desired. 

HEY/ YORK BZLTIHG a PACKING CO. 

WAREHOUSE: 
JOHN H. CHEEVER, Treasurer. ^ ^ -r^^^^^ 1VT ^r 

J. D. CHEEVER. Depv Treas ^^ Parl^ Row, N. ^ • 




TH1& RAIwTTIIvrOR^ 



]V[/iNUF7qcTURERs' Record, 

A "Weekzly Paper, 

Devoted to the Manufacturing, Mining and Railroad Interests of the 

soxjTs:EiE.isr states. 



Its ^^eekly issues constitute an Authentic History of the Industrial Pro- 
gress of the Southern States 




It is Read in Every Se6lion of the 14 Southern States, and has a. 
Constantly Increasing Circulation among capitalists and others in the 
North, who wish to keep informed as to Southern Affairs. 

suBScriiF"rioisr s3.oo a. year, 

PUBLISHED BY THE 

Manufacturers' Record Co. 

S. E. Cor. Exchangfe Place and Commerce Street, BALTIMORE, MD. 



Edson's Speed Recording Gauge 

COMBINED WITH 

TIME AND PRESSURE INDICATIONS, 




TJTLT. INSTRUCTIONS 

for unpacking, setting up and running, always 
sent with instrument. 

Vibrating Alarm Gong and Batteries, 



TO Bfi PLACED IN ENGINE KOOM. 




SPECIAL ATTENTION 

of Steam users. Engineers, Superintendents of 
city water works, and Electricians, is called 

to the Combined Instrument, whereby a 

"record" may be constantly made upon a ribbon 
of paper, graduated to scales of TIME and of 
RATES OF SPEED, and whereon the 
records of steam (or water) pressure are also 
being made simultaneously and automatically, 
as the same are indicated by hand and dial in the 
usual manner upon the same instrument, as 
shown in the cut. 

Dynamo Machines must be run at a 
uniform 'rate and continuously ; and 
steam, or other motive power, must be reliable 
at all times. Unquestionably these auto- 
matic means must be resorted to in 
order to secure intelligent and efficient 

action on the part of those in charge of the 
several elements put in requisition for performing 
so important operations; and in which blun- 
dering, unfaithful or incompetent performance of 
assumed or prescribed duties, will be attended 
with very serious results. 

Inasmuch as Electricity and Steam are each 
dangerous in their nature, and both as 
yet on trial, no warrant can be found to justify 
anyone, even those who are considered "ex- 
perts," in delaying or refusing to apply to im- 
mediate and constant use these well-tried in- 
ventions. 

One or more "Alarm Gongs" give instant 
notice of any over pressure. 

They were adopted and used at the Cen- 
tennial Exhibition as standards for 
expert testing of Steam Boilers, Steam 
Gauges, etc., and they are guaranteed for ac- 
curacy and durability. 

They are alike adapted for Air, Oil, Steam 
or Water Pressure. 

One year's supply of daily "Charts" printed 
and ruled to special scale of each instrument, 
also shelf and Brackets sent free of extra charge 
with the Gauges. 



These instruments are now in use on the Brooklyn Bridge ; in the new Capitol building, Albany; 
by the Edison Electric Light and Illuminating Company; the U. S. Illuminating Co.; the New 
\ork Steam Co. ; on the United States ships "Shenandoah" and "Powhatan;" in the mercantile 
marine on both ocean and river steamers; by the Chicago Cable Railway, and the Chicago Water 
Works; the St. Louis Ore and Steel Company ; the New York, Brooklyn, and other Water Works; 
and hundreds of breweries, paper mills, chemical works, oil refineries and others. 

{;^"For descriptive pamphlet, reduced price list, and further informalion, address 

THE EDSON RECORDING AND ALARM GAUGE CO. 

91 Liberty Street, New York. 



Edson's Steam Recording and Alarm Gauge, 

FOR USE ON ALL KINDS OF BOILERS. 



B. F. Isherwood, Chief Engineer 

U. S. Navy, writes as follows : 

"New York, Sept. i, 1885. 
"The use of Recording-Steam Gauges and 
High-Pressure Alarms on boilers is of supreme 
importance because it is a means for the preser- 
vation of life and property, for the discovery of 
the causes of steajn-hoilcr explosions, and for 
the /MJ^ adjudication of damages when the latter 
occur, etc., etc. 



Geo. B. N. Tower, late U. S. Su- 
pervising Inspector-General of Steamers, 
writes as follows . 

*'M B Edson, Esq., President. 

"Sir : I have carefully examined your Indica- 
ting and Recording Steam Pressure Gauge and 
High Pressure Alarm, and am well satisfied that 
it will do all that is claimed for it. I have wit- 
nessed its aciion for some years past, and con- 
sider it invaluable to owners and users of steam 
power, as it is a complete check on the doings of 
the engineer and fireman. Its perfect reliability 
is unquestioned. Nothing harms a boiler more 
than fluctuations in pressure, and nothing is more 
prejudicial to economy in fuel, and the 7-ecord 
■chart of this gauge shows at once whether the 
pressure is uniform, and the amounts of ail varia- 
tions. In case of an explosion it is very difficult, 
and generally impossible, to determine the 
amount of steam pressure at the moment of rup- 
ture ; but if this gauge is attached, the record- 
sheet gives an indubitable and accurate register 
of the pressure in pounds, which may assist 
greatly in determining the cause > f the explosion. 
It is oj" g7-eat assistance to boi'er inspectors, 
for it shoivs them hoiv efficiently an eng'ineef 
has cared for his boiler, and, also, whether 
the prescribed pressure has been exceeded — how 
much and hozu often ; a.nd for this reason alone, 
if for no other, the 'Charts' should always be 
carefully preserved for reference, I think 
too much cannot be said in its favor. 
Respectfully, 

"Geo. B. N. Tower, 
"Sup'g Inspector Am. Steam Boiler Ins. Co. 

"New York, Dec. i, 1885." 



The well-known Expert in Hydraulic 
Engineering, J. J. R. Croes, Esq., 
states that "the evidence obtained by 
the use of these Recording Gauges is 
extremely useful, and is a most effective 
means for discovering whether waste 
occurs, and of tracing offenders in this 
respect." 

For descriptive phamphlet, reduced 
price list, or further information, address 

The Edson Recording & Alarm Gauge Co, 
91 Liberty Street, New York. 




FLOUR TRADE OF BALTIMORE. 

ONE of the most important industries of Baltimore is tlie manufacture of flour. 
Since 1774, when the EUicotts first built the Patapsco Flour Mill at Ellicott 
City, a few miles from Baltimore, this city has been noted as a great flour 
market. The superior quality of Maryland and Virginia winter wheat, which 
contains more nutriment than the AVestern spring wheat, has always enabled our 
best millers to produce the highest grade of flour — the "Patapsco" brand, for 
instance, now over a century old, being known from Canada to Florida, as well 
as in Europe, as a flour that has always stood at the very top; a flour, in fact, the 
superior of which can nowhere be found. Of course, the leading mills are the three 
Patapsco Mills, owned by the C. A. Gambrill Manufacturing Company. A few 
facts about this companj-- will serve to give an idea of Baltimore's flour business. 
It is an incorporated company, having a capital of $C09,000, a fact which will give 
the readers of The New South some idea of the extent of their operations. They 
OAvn and operate three large mills, having an aggregate daily capacity of about 
2,000 barrels, or over 600,000 barrels a year. Their mills are unsurpassed in 
design and construction, and are supplied with the very Ictest and most improved 
roller process machinery, one of their mills having been built only aboutthreey ears 
ago, while the other two have, since then, been remodeled and changed from 
buhrs to rollers, no expense whatever having been spared either in the building 
©f the new mill or the remodeling of the others, the company being determined 
that these mills should have exevy advantage that the highest skill, backed by an 
abundance of money, could give. As they now stand, these three mills are models . 
of perfection, and as they are managed by the best millers to be found in the 
country, and use the finest wheat raised in America, they, of course, produce, as 
we have already said, a grade of flour that has no superior, in the United States. 
It is these mills and this brand of flour, more than all else, that have given Balti- 
more such a world-wide reputation as a flour market. The manufacturers have 
steadily, from year to year, added the latest improvements in milling, until it 
really seems that they have reached absolute perfection in making flour. The 
NcAV York Produce Exchange Reporter, one of the best authorities in the 
country on flour and grain matters, in a late issue, says : " Some years ago the 
millers of the Northwest adopted the roller system, which proved a great success, 
and flour manufactured by this new method at once took a front rank, and came 
into severe and sharp competition with the old standards and brands of winter 
wheat flour as manufactured by the old buhr system. The adoption of the new 
roller system, in connection with other modern appliances, produced this result. 
This stimulated the winter wheat millers to enter the line of evolution, and 
knowing winter wheat to be in all respects for superior to spring wheat, they 
entertained no fear as to results. * * * During the past fortnight we have 
devoted considerable time in carefully testing the qualities of the flour of the 
Patapso Flour Mills. This flour has been long known to the trade, and during 
this century it has held a very distinguished position, growing in the popular 
estimation almost yearly. This renowned flour is made from carefully selected 
Maryland red wheat, * * * and in this brand we have an article embracing 
unrivalled qualities. * * * It is not often we find a flour possessing so many 
admirable qualities. Its color is very much in its ftivor; and to the excellent 
wheat, the skillful milling and improved machinery, we are indebted for this 
unrivalled article." And thus we might go on almost indefinitely telling of the 
good qualities of this most excellent flour. In Eurojie it is as great a favorite 
with those who have used it as in this country — a late letter from Dunlop Bros., 
of Glasgow, to the Gambrill Manufacturing Company mentioning the f\ict that 
they had sold this flour at a higher price than could be obtained for the best 
Minnesota flour. 



MANUFACTURE OF MACHINERY. 

AS the home of great engineering skill, Baltimore I,as for many years 

least af fTh..V T"'" ""''"""'' """^ <=»gi"»'=ri"S work have always, or at 

least as fai back as the memory of man runneth not to the contrary been 

regarded as equal to the accomplishment of the most difficult undcrtaWs and 

h,s reputation ts well deserved. Probably in no way is the standing of Baft mo"e 

Tf MeT; pXr Htm7" rr^'r "J"^'™"''' '""' ''^' ^ '^^^ '" "^« b-^-- 

cent m and^ ,e ^ ; ■? '"'" ""'' "«•" '" «-^'^«^°^« o™-- '^ «"«l of a 

centnj, and the highest commendation that can be given them is simnlv'to 

mention one or two of the large contracts that thejhave rccdved Xn n 
competition w th the whole countty. Chicago, for ins ance, is a g,"at c^t ' and 
yet, two or three years ago, when the first cable street railrSd was to be 
constructed in that city-a work involving several million m^^-^2:,l Poole 
& Hmit received the contract for furnishing the enormous amount of transmLTon 
machinery required; and such was the case in Kansas City; and again even in 
New lork. the largest manufacturing center in the countey, when the Thi'-d 

Avenue Cable Road or- 
dered their machinery 
of the same firm. In 
addition to these roads 
Messrs. Poole & Hunt 
have lately built the 
same class of machin- 
^ ery, but on a much 
more extensive scale 
'^ than for any other road 
in existence, for the 
new cable road in Ho- 
boken, IST. J., and for 
extensions in Chica- 
go and Kansas City. 
In this connection 
it may be said that 

plants have been furuishprl h,^ P^ i x tt . ^^ ^^^-^'^ ^^'^^^ ^^^»e 

Anotlier^amnlPo/th ^ ? ^ ^ ^''^^ ""''^ ^°^' ^^ ^"ccessful operation. 

t2Zt^r ? . '^''''' '' '"^^ "^ ^ i""^^^se ^^^-^^^l^^es which they recentiv 

- n -S^r^^ra!:;^^""^ at Washin,ton,I^C. They a^ i:;:^t o^ 

In operathirXr , ' f '"'"'' "' "^" ^^^^ Sc-hmidt Hydraulic Dredge, 

punld Z hr. e '^''''''''^ '^ '^ -^---ted is first stirred up, and is then 
^" rks of T 7^^ ^'^'"'^ "°^^ ""'^y ^' ^«^^'^3'ed to any distance. The 

rnnectel Z\T] '" '^"''"' '' Woodberry, a s.burb of Baltimore, and are 
To ac' s oVo ' "r ""T"" """' "^^^ ^" ^^^^^^— Their works now cov r 
tL hand in^"\""; •'"' "" "' every way achiKrably located for the manufac- 
fo^nkrv n tf . '''''"'' "' machinery to all parts of the country. The iron 

eSi^est^lii. ' '"""'r^ ^^ '^^^ ^^^^^ department connected with this 

moTemJul^^^^^^^^^ "'' systematically arranged, and replete with every 

1 XtTre " ' •"' ''r ""r' ""^-^^ ''"'''' ^^^ ^-^^^-^ ^^-P'-^t^^- This firm 
n aXne „ "''^r"' ^""'^'''^ ^^^^ ^"^^ ""''''^^ ^''''' ^^11«' flouring-miU 

^earirS ",r"T'V'''''"' "^^'^^" '^^ P''^"^^^' ^^^^^ l-'-^d' fertilizers: etc.. 
mi m^cLrvT.^T 'i^'.' ^""'' ^^'^'-^^^^t- P— > -inte-lead works and oil- 

^r^r^^X^r::- ^ — -m. pmiey. 




THE HVGEIA HOTEL, OLD POINT COMFORT, VA. 

OLD POINT COMFORT was the name given by Cai)tain John Smith, the 
tempest-tossed mariner of the seventeenth century, to that point of land 
which juts into the broad and pleasant waters of the long-sought harbor of 
Hampton Roads. Situated in latitude 37 degrees, it escapes the rigors of a more 
northerly climate. Its temperature during the coldest weather rarely falls below 
42 degrees. In summer it preserves a temperate mean between 60 and 80 degrees. 
Since 1817 it has been a military post, and sanitary records kept witli absolute 
fidelity show that during a term of fifty years not a single case of malarial, typhus 
or scarlet fever, nor diphtheria, has originated on the Point. So close to the shore 
that the cheek is fanned by the salt breeze, and the music of the waves lull the 
weary traveler to repose, rises the tall -towered, many-windowed Hygeia, the 
(lueen of health and pleasure resorts of the North Atlantic coast. It stretches 
its leviathan length a quarter of a mile along the white beach. Its six hundred 
rooms are luxuriantly furnished with all modern conveniences— gas, electric bells 
and oral annunciators, Russian, Turkish, Roman, electric, thermo-electric, hot and 
cold sea baths, and the most perfect system of drainage to be found in any hotel 
in this country. The wide verandas, 15,000 square feet of which are encased in 
glass, afford delightful promenades and sun baths for the delicate invalid. A 
spacious ball-room is reserved for dancing, with an excellent military baud in 




nightly attendance. The table is unsurpassed. The surrounding country furnishes 
the choicest and earliest vegetables; Baltimore, Washington and Norfolk markets 
supply meat and game, Avhile the fish and oysters of the Chesapeake Bay enjoy a 
world-wide celebrity for their variety and flavor. Tlie liistoric interests which 
cluster about Old Point Comfort are familiar to all. The Hygeia is adjacent to 
one of the largest military posts in the world, Fort Monroe, the stronghold during 
the late civil war of the Union army and navy. Just oi)p()site her green parapets 
the battle which decided the fate of the Confederacy at sea, between the Merrimac 
and the Monitor, took place. Within two miles of the Hygeia are those famous 
philanthropic institutions, the Normal and Agricultural School for Colored People 
and Indians, and the National Soldiers' Home; a half a mile beyond, the ancient 
colonial town of Hampton. Portsmouth, with its navy yard and arsenal, and 
Norfolk, the thriving shipping and commercial town, are distant an hour's sail 
across the Roads. The modes of reaching the Hygeia ai-e various, and admit of a 
variety of routes. The best of medical and surgical skill is witliin five minutes' 
call. The visitors include residents of all parts of the United States and Canada, 
and the register last year held the most distinguished names on the roll of their 
citizens, comprising representatives from Manitoba, on the north, to British 
Honduras, on the south, and from California to the Atlantic Ocean. 



THE ST. JAMES, JACKSONVILLE, FLA. 

THE St. Jjinic'S Hotel is an old house, yet it is a new and modern ln)iise. It 
might be said that it was built in 1868; or better, that they have been since 
1868 building it. The first building, of wood, was erected at a cost of 
$30,000, and furnislied at an expense of $20,000. The size was 105 by 150 feet, 
and it was four stories high. Enlarged and improved from time to time, it has 
always kept in the lead. One familiar with its continued growth in size must 
wonder where it will stop. Brick additions, large dining rooms and kitchen have 
been built, until now nearly the whole s^iuare bounded by Duval, Laura, Church 
and Hogan streets is covered. The situation is in the best residence portion of 
the city, just fxr enougli back from the business section to be both convenient and 
pleasant. The churches and places of amusement are in close proximity. The 
hotel fronts on a beautiful public park filled with tropical plants, trees and shrub- 
bery. The verandas are wide and extend the wliole length of the front and pant 
of the side on the first and second stories. A good entrance ornaments the 
center, and large trees surround the whole. The St. James now stands without 
a rival in the whole South, and evokes the admiration of its thousands of guests 




The St. James Hotel. 



at its large and beautiful proportions and furnishings, as well as the energy and 
enterprise of its proprietor. To its host of friends no mention need be made of 
its spacious and cheerful oflftce and halls, pleasantly impressing the traveller on 
entering ; of its magnificent public parlor, suggestive of luxurious comfort; of its 
inmiense and elegant dining room, with its unexcelled service and the enviable 
reputation of its cuisine^ and of its private parlors, private and pul^lic bath rot^ms,. 
elegant rooms en suite, with baths, &c., attached, billiard parlor, telegraph olfice„ 
electric bells, elevator, gas, and the whole building heated with steam. In fine,, 
these, with all the modern devices and improvements which skill and experience 
can suggest, together with the delightful climate, are presented as inducements- 
and temptations to the public to visit Florida and the St. James. The house and 
grounds are lighted by electric light. A select band of musicians, organized both, 
as brass band and orchestra, is engaged for every season, which gives concerts 
daily for the entertainment of the guests, and for impromptu hops, which occur 
every evening. For information regarding rooms, terms, or other particulars, 
address by letter or telegraph J. R. Campbell, proprietor, Jacksonville, Florida. 



PRINTING PRESSES. 

AMONG the recent improveineuts in printing macliinery, tliere has never 
been a more radical departure from the old-established form and style of 
building these machines than that of Messrs. C. B. Cottrell & Sons, of 
New York City and Chicago, 111. These gentlemen, realizing that for the linest 
class of press-work, in both black and colored inks, the ordinary fly delivery was 
far from perfection, have perfected and put on the market their New Patent 
Front Delivery, and have applied the same to both the Two-Revolution and 
Stop-Cylinder Presses of their manufacture. Tlie improvement consists of arched 
Avays or tracks running from the cylinder at one end to the receiving table at the 
other. In these ways run carriers attached to and carrying gripper-bars, which 
take the sheet from the cylinder by the "front" or "grippcr" edge, and carry it 
through the air, clear of all tapes, cords or strings of any kind, and deposit it, 
last printed side up, on the receiving table (which is situated over the fountain) 
•without any pressure whatever, thus doirg away with the necessity of slip sheets. 
The sheet being deposited rii;ht under the eye of the pressman, he can adjust his 
fountain without leaving his position, thus economizhig time and saving spoilage. 
The high commendation this improvement is receiving from printers who have 
adopted and are using it is a sutflcient attestation of its merits. The publishers 




Cottrell's New Front Delivery Press. 



of this book have had one of this make of presses in use for some time, and the 
present volume was printed on it. They consider this method of delivery an 
immense improvement on the old style, and would not use any other press for 
fine work. This press was their latest purchase in that line, and was selected 
after a careful examination into the merits of all the best known makes, seeking 
a make of press best calculated to gratify their ambition to secure for the Manu- 
facturers' Record the reputation of being the best printed trade journal in the 
United States, and thus naturally the finest in the world. There were presses of 
this make and embodying this improvement exhibited at the World's Industrial 
and Cotton Centennial Exposition at New Orleans, and the}' were awarded medal 
of first class over all competitors. Messrs. Cottrell & S(ms make a specialty of 
presses for the finest book and color work. They also manufacture cylinder 
presses of all grades and sizes for ncwsj)ape]- and job work. Their country press 
was awarded first medal at the New Orleans Exposition. The decision of the 
judges confirms the opinion held by the leading printers throughout the country 
that the Cottrell presses are the best in existence. The offices of Messrs. Cottrell 
<& Sons are at 8 Spruce street, New York, and 198 Clark street, Chicago, 111. 



PRINTING INKS. 

THE Queen City Printing Ink Company, located in Cincinnati, right on the 
borders of the " Sunny South," with unexcelled facilities for shipping to all 
points of the Southern States, is claimed by its founders to be the oldest 
now in existence, and the most extensive manufactory of its kind in the great 
Southwest. AVliatever of credit or honor may be attached to pioneersliip, this 
company is justly entitled to, for its history can be traced back to the earliest 
attempt to manufacture a really fine printing ink west of the Alleghanies; but a 
higher honor than comes from its age is the reputation which the Queen City 
Printing Ink Company has achieved among printers. The excellency of its 
productions created a demand for them wliich has steadily grown year by year, 
necessitating frequent enlargements of factory and increased facilities for manu- 
facture, until now the establishment of the company is one of the largest and 
most completely equipped works of the kind in the United States. The company, 
under the name of DeGolyer & Rychen, began business in a small way in 1860, 
and determined to achieve success through the merits of their productions, 
deeming it good business policy to make superiority m the quality of their inks 
the leading feature, and to maintain the most absolute uniformity of quality for 
each grade. Confident of their ability to do this, and wishing to reap the full 
benefit of the favor with which superior and uniform inks would surely meet, 
they determined to adopt a distinctive brand which all their productions would 
bear— the various grades being designated by special name and price. With this 
end in view, the name Queen City Printing Ink Company was adopted as a brand, 
and so widely and favorably known did it become, that a few years later, when 
the firm became a corporation, what had merely been a brand or trade-mark 
became the name of the company; and the business growing on the merits of its 
inks, in 1870 they removed to 000 West Fifth street, and enlarged their facilities 
by erecting large works on Court street. In 1876 a stock company was formed 
-under the name of Queen City Printing Ink Company, with John Rychen, presi- 
dent; E. F. Rychen, vice-president, and Joseph Green, secretary and treasurer. 
The company recently erected large buildings on South street, near Evans, which 
are supplied with all the modern improvements and appliances necessary for 
extensive production, and every facility and convenience is provitled for the 
prosecution of the work. Tlie works have a capacity of three and a half tons 
per day. The manufacture embraces all grades and colors of printing and litho- 
graph inks, tints, varnishes, sizes, etc., the principal production being news inks, 
for which the house has an extensive demand, the quality of its inks commanding 
a wide preference. All the Cincinnati dailies and nearly all of the less frequent 
issues are supplied from this establishment; also a large number of papers in 
St. Louis, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Detroit, Nashville, Atlanta, New- 
Orleans, Buffalo, etc. The news ink is put up in 5 to 500-pound i^ackages; the 
fine and colored inks in smaller packages, down to a single ounce. They also 
manufacture a special grade of illustrated book and catalogue ink, with which 
this edition of the "New South" is printed, and which is used on a large number 
of illustrated and trade journals, among which are the Mann tact urers' Record, 
Northwestern Miller, Modern ]\Iiller, American Miller, Cai-riage Monthly, and 
many others. It is suitable for printing a fine card as well as the largest and 
most difficult cut work. From being a pioneer concern, the Queen City Printing 
Ink Company has grown to be the largest and best equipped west of the Alle- 
ghanies. It makes all its own materials, and hence insures the quality of its 
product. Its inks are the standard in the West, their superiority being universally 
recognized. The trade, which extends throughout the North, South and AVest, is 
steadily and deservedly increasing— the management being marked by intelligent 
-enterprise, and the products first-class in all respects. 



A Scrap of Unwritten History. 




When the star of empire of which Jeff- 
erson Davis had so fondly dreamed 
had waxed and waned, and fate de- 
creer] that the Southern Confederacy 
should go out in darkness, the curtain fell 
upon the la-t act of the bloody drama in 
North Carolina, Lee having capitulated at 
Appomattox. Sherman, on his march to 
the sea, had demonstrated to .lohnston that 
further resistance was useless, so April, 
1S65, found Sherman with his army at 
Raleig-h, N. C, while Johnston, with the 
remnant of his troops, was resting- at Greens>- 
boro, N. C. From Kaleig-h to Greensboro, a 
distance of 75 miles, both armies roamed 
inliscr.minately. Gen. Johnston sig-nified 
to Gen. Sherman his desire for a conference, 
and an armistice of ten days was declared, 
and the two g-reat chieftains met in consul- 
tat'on at a little house four miles west of 
Durham, N. C. Durham, an insignificant 
railway station, having a population of two 
liundred, was declared neutral ground. 
Here the gray and blue met in friendly in- 
tercourse— swapped horses, ran foot races, 
shot at targets, and around the same camp- 
fire told of hair-brealth escapes. Not more 
than one hundred yards from the railway 
station stood a two story frame tobacco 
factory, owned by John B. Green. During 
the war Green had manufactured smoking 
to')accoforthe'*boysinthearmy," but now 
his occupation was gone. Stored in the 
factory wore large quantities of smoking 
tobacco ready for shipment, and during the 
armistice the build ng was sacked and 
around the camp-fires in Durham the blue 
and the gray literally smoked the pipe of 
of peace. When the terms of surrender 
were arranged, the soldiers of each army 
provided themselves with a "'poke" of to- 
bacco, and marched homeward . In this way 
the tobacco was scattered from Maine to 
Texas. What G reen had regarded as a great 
calamity soon proved to be a great blessing. 
When the soldiers, on reaching home, had 
exhausted their "poke," orders directed to 
the railroad agent, postmaster, etc., at Dur- 
ham, N. C, began to pour in for that smok- 
ing tobacco. Green, quick to perceive his 
advantage, christened his tobacco "Dur- 
ham," and seler-tcd the Durham bull as his 
trade mark. Nowhere on the globe is to- 
bacco of such fine quality or so peculiarly 
adapted to smokine: purposes raised as is 
grown in the vicinity of Durham. Almost 
entirely free from nitrates and nicotine, the 
Durham tobacco has become so celebrated 



that to-day, all over the United States, the 
Canadas, South America, Japan, Australia^ 
China, etc., it is the acknowledged standard 
of excellence and purity. In 1869 Green 
died, and W. T. Blackwell & Co. purchased 
the business, and, putting into it fresh capi- 
tal and enterprise, soon made it a wonder lul 
success, until to-day they are one of the 
largest and most flourishing fli-me in the 
country. At the time of the purchase from 
Green, the total force employed in the fac- 
tory numbered less than twelve, and the 
population of the town less than 300. To- 
day the Blackw ell's Durham Tobacco Co., 
successors to W. T. Blackwell & Co., pay 
annually to the government a revenue tax 
ot: more than $250,000 and employ from 500 
to 600 hands. The embryo village of 1865 
has a population in 1886 of over 5,000, and 
contains the largest smoking tobacco fac- 
tory in the world. The factory of Black- 
well's Durham Tobacco Co., the famous 
manufacturers of the celebrated Bull Dur- 
ham smoking tobacco and cigarettes, is the 
feature of attraction at Durham. Immedi- 
ately fronting the railroad, it looks more 
like one of our mammoth metropolitan 
hotels than a tobacco factory. On the first 
floor are fine offices, and here a gentlemanly 
usher shows visitors all the items of inter- 
est. Everything indicates industry and 
enterprise, and perfect system prevails. AH 
the best Improved machinery is provided 
for granulating, shredding, combing, dryinar 
and packing tobacco. The amount of leaf 
tobacco (in the raw state) carried by the 
firm is amazing to the visitor. Six immense 
storage warehouses, in addition to the 
mammoth four-story brick factory, are re- 
quired to hold the stock of raw leaf con- 
stantly on hand. 

Durham is twenty- six miles west of 
Raleigh, the capital of the State, and is the 
outlet to what is known as the Golden To- 
bacco Belt of North Carolina. Facts show 
that the tobacco grown in this section is not 
equaled elsewhere in the world. As all the 
tobacco raised in this Golden Belt finds its 
market at Durham, Blackwell's Durham 
Tobacco Co. are so situatnd that they con- 
trol the pick of all the offerings, and this, 
in connection witli their enormous storage 
facilities, enable them to carry the choicest 
stock until it is as sweet and fragrant as a 
rose. Success always brings imitators and 
several unprincipled manufacturers who 
have attempted to pirate their goods have 
been brought to justice. The smoking pub- 
lic are, however, fast learning that the Dur- 
ham bull must be on the package to insure 
purity, and they will not take any other. 
Blackwell's Durham Tobacco Co. have lately 
added the manufacture of long cut smoking 
tobacco and cigarettes to their business, but 
the purity and quality of these goods have 
already secured them an enormous trade. 
Little did the gallant "boys in blue and 
gray," around their camp-fires in Durham 
in 1865, dream that they were sowing the 
seeds which have grown till Durham is one 
of the thriftiest and most widely known 
towns in the South, if not in the Union. 

M(>ssrs. M. E. McDowell & Co. are the sole 
agents for the sale of the goods manufac- 
tured by Blackwell's Durham Tobacco Co. 
The main office of this enterprising firm is 
at 603-605 Chestnut street, Philade'phia, and 
they have branch offices as follows: New 
York, No. 102 Chambers street; Chicago, No. 
8 AVabash avenue: St. Louis, No. 416 N. 2nd 
street; San Francisco, No. 228 Front street; 
Atlanta, No. 9 W. Alabama street; New Or- 
leans, No. 476 Constanoe street; London, 
England, No. 52 Farringdon street. 



A VALUABLE REMEDY. 

ONE of the most widely known medicines at the present day is Swift's 
Specific. The growth in the sales of this remedy during the last few years 
has been astounding. As showing something of its efficacy and the estima- 
tion in which it is held, the following letters are presented: 

Mr. Charles Berg writes as follows from the Hot Springs, January 1, 1883: 
*' Mercurial rheumatism made me cripple. After trying the springs two years, 
and the mercury and potash treatment until I was a skeleton and unable to do 
anything, I was prevailed upon to take a course of S. S. S. After taking three 
bottles my appetite Legan to improve and I gained flesh rapidly. When I had 
taken twelve bottles I felt as well as I ever did. It is now twelve months since I 
took S. S. S. My health and appetite are good, and I am able to attend to all the 
business I can get." 

The following is from Peter E. Love, Esq., Augusta, Ga., January 8, 1385: 
" I am a coppersmith by trade, and during a series of years my arms (being bare 
when at work) absorbed a wonderful amount of metal poison. Having a scrofu- 
lous tendency from my youth, the small particles of copper and brass would get 
into the sores, and by this process the poison was conveyed into my blood until 
my whole system became infected. I was treated with the old remedies, mercury 
and iodide of potash. Salivation followed, and my teeth are all loose in my head, 
and my digestive organs became deranged. I have been helpless in bed for a year 
with mercurial rheumatism. My joints were swollen, I lost the use of my arms 
and legs, and became helpless as an infant. My suff'erings became so intense it 
was impossible for me to rest. The doctors advised me to go to the city hospital 
for treatment. This I could not bear. A friend, who has proved a friend indeed, 
urged me to try Swift's Specific, believing it would cure me. Others discouraged 
me ; but I secured a supply, and have now taken two dozen bottles. The first 
effect of the medicine was to bring the poison to the surface, and I broke out all 
over in running sores. They soon discharged and disappeared, and my skin 
cleared off. My knees, which had become twice their natural size, were soon 
reduced to natural shape again. My arms and hands, which had become useless, 
became all right again, and I can now use them without pain. The disease has 
left all parts of the body, save ulcers on my wrists, Avliich are rapidly healing. I 
am weak from long confinement, but I have the use of all my limbs. This medi- 
cine is bringing me out of the greatest trial of my life, and I cannot find words 
of sufficient strength to express my appreciation of its virtues and the gratitude 
I feel that I ever heard of it." 

Mr. W. C. Furlow, Sumpter County, Ga., September 11, 1884, writes: 
" The drouth in Southwest Georgia last spring dried up the wells, and we were 
compelled to use water from a creek on the plantation. The result was that all 
were troubled with chills and fever. I cai-ried with me several bottles of Swift's 
Specific, and as long as I took it I had perfect health. As soon as I ceased taking 
it, I, like the rest, was affiicted with chills. When I resumed its use I was all right 
again. We have used it in our family as an antidote for malarial poison for two 
or three years, and have never known it to fail in a single instance." 

Here is a medical endorsement. It is from F. A. Toomcr, M. D., Perry, Ga. : 
"Bad blood is inclined to come to the surfiice in the spring, because of the 
effort made by good old mother nature to throw it off". If nature does not have 
help at this time the poison may go back to the system and produce all manner of 
ills; but by the aid of Swift's Specific the bad blood is all driven out through the 
pores of the skin, and permanently relieves the trouble. This remedy is purely a 
vegetable and harmless preparation, but so powerful an antidote to blood ])oison 
that it finds and roots it all out. Do not be deceived by mercury and potash 
mixtures, which drive in the poison, only to come out again in a worse form. I 
have cured permanently blood taint in the third generation by the use of Swift's 
Specific, after I had most signally failed with mercury and potash." 

Get the genuine treatise on blood and skin diseases, mailed free by the Swift 
Specific Co., Drawer 3, Atlanta, Ga. 



THE RICHMOND DISPATCH, RICHMOND, VA. 



IN 1850 James A. Cowardin, Esq., wlio had had a large and varied experience 
in newspaper work, undertook the establisliment in Richmond, Va., of the 
** Daily Dispatch." His enterprise contemplated a penny paper, which, while 
giving paramount attention to the news of the day, would at all times be ready to 
discuss editorially topics of public interest. The Dispaicli early became a popular 
favorite, distinguished for its activity in the collection of news, for reliability and 
readableness of its reports, for devotion to the best interests of city and State, 
and for its independent but calm discussion of all matters — political, financial, 
and other. It was the persistent friend and advocate of every judicious scheme 
of internal improvement, and devoted much of its energy to the promotion of 
such other enterprises — State, municipal and individual — as promised to advance 
the prosperity of Richmond. The DisjKctch continued its career with uninter- 
rupted prosperity during the late civil war, and until the 3d of April, 1865, when, 
in the evacuation of the Confederate capital by Confederate troops, a large portion 

of the city was destroj-ed by fire, and in the gen- 
eral calamity the Dispatch lost its ofiiceo The 
building and all that was in it was destroyed, 
including a new outfit secured for it by a special 
messenger sent to England, who had run it 
through the blockade at Wilmington, N. C. But 
undaunted by this severe loss, and wiiile 5^et the 
principal streets of the city were blockaded with 
the debris of the best business houses, the owners 
of the paper, Messrs, Cowardin & EUyson, nego- 
tiated for a new and more complete equipment, 
and made ready to start again. Here their enter- 
prise was frustrated hj a United States military 
order. The publication of the Dispatch was for- 
bidden. . As soon as the revocation of that order 
could be obtained, in December, 1865, the Dispatch 
resumed its publication ; but there were already 
six other daily papers in the field. It was a 
memorable period of newspaper competition in 
Kichmond ; but the Dispatch soon ^ook the lead, and its most formidable rival, the 
"Times, w^ent down after two years' struggle, the Dispatch becoming the purchaser 
of its good-will. The firm of Cowardin & Ellyson was dissolved a short time 
before tlie death of Mr. Cowardin (in 1882), and a stock company w^as formed, 
wath the former owners as principal ofticers. The Dispatch has the best business 
location in Richmond, and twelve months ago it put in a Hoe type-revolving 
machine. It gets as full Associated Press news as is sent South; it has a regular 
correspondent in Washington, and in each city and town and center of intelli- 
gence in Virginia; it has a complete corps of editors and reporters, and is by no 
means backward in the expenditure of money for special work, whether it be 
reporting, telegraphing or illustrr.lhig. The Dispaicli enjoys the confidence of 
the people of Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina and other States. Its 
daily circulation is from 14,000 to 16,000, being larger than that of any paper 
south of Baltimore, if New Orleans be excepted. 

The Weekly Dispatch is an 8-page paper filled with the latest news, miscella- 
neous and choice literature. Its present circulation is 9,000. 

The Dispatch is altogether a live, x)rosperous and progressive paper, and is 
one of the many indices pointing to the healthful progress of Richmond City. 




THE NEWS AND COURIER, CHARLESTON, S. C. 

IN no phase of Southern development has there been greater progress tliau in 
journalism. The press of the South has, 'within the last few years, taken 
rapid strides forward, and in the ability and enterprise of its papers that 
section now ranks with any other portion of the country. In fact, it may be 
safely claimed that each of the leading Southern cities can boast of one or more 
dailies that, in all that goes to make up a great newspaper, are far ahead of any 
to be found in cities of the same size in the Korth and West, with rare exceptions. 
One of the foremost of these is the Charleston News and Courier, a leading expo- 
nent of Southern sentiment; in politics, Democratic to the core; national, not 
sectional, in policy and purpose. For Northern and Western men who desire to 
increase their knowledge of the South; for Southern men who wish to know 
"what is thought and accomplished and proposed in the Southern States; for 
Amer" ;ans everywhere and at all times, the News and Courier, daily, Sunday, 
"weekly, will be found to be without a rival in the completeness of its news ser- 
vice, the thoroughness with which the Southern field is covered, and the frankness 
and liberality with which the questions of the day are discussed. The News and 
Courier makes special rates to agents and for clubs, and will send specimen copies 
and special club rates free on application. Address the News and Courier^ 19 
Broad street, Charleston, S. C. 



THE TIMES-UNION, JACKSONVILLE, FLA. 

THE Florida Times-UvrbTi and the Florida Weekly Times are published by C. 
H. Jones & Bro., T^uics- Union Building, West Bay, corner Laura street, 
Jacksonville, Fla. The great public, whatever their differences on other 
subjects, by common consent, unite in the verdict that the great papers of Florida 
are the Florida Times-Union and the Florida Weekly I'iiiwfi. There is scarcely a- 
parallel where two papers with such wide circulation have in so short a time won 
their way into the confidence and support of the people. Up to the year 1881 
various attempts had been made to establish a daily newspaper in Jacksonville, 
but the time was not ripe for the undertaking. Florida had not progressed far 
enough to support a great paper that would rank among the foremost journals of 
the country. To that end, and in November, 1? 81, Mr. Charles H. Jones, the 
senior proprietor and present editor and chief of the above-named papers, started 
the Florida Daily Times, which was a success from the start. In May, 1882, lie 
formed a partnership with Mr. John P. Yarnum and George W. Jones, his brother, 
the firm being Jones, Yarnum & Co. In November, 1P82, the Florida Weekly 
Times, at $1 per year, was started, which had unprecedented success, and now 
circulates in every State and Territory in the Union, as well as to foreign coun- 
tries, and claims to have by far the largest circulation of any paper in the Slate. 
In January, 1884, the proprietors of the Times purchased the Florida Daily Union, 
and consolidated the two papers under the title of the Florida Times-Union, 
which is the only daily paper in Florida with a general circulation which is as 
large as that of any other journal in the South outsiide of New Orleans. It has a 
solid reputation and is extensively quoted. The purchase of the Union included 
a job office, which has been thoroughly equipped with new material, and is now 
one of the best and most extensive in the South. In June, 1884, a boo!:-bindery 
with new equipment, including improved tools and machinery, was added. In 
March, 1884, Mr. Charles H. Jones purchased the interest of Mr. John P. Yarnum, 
since wdiich time the firm has been, as now, C. H. Jones & Bro. This firm con- 
ducts business on a strict cash basis, and ranks Al in the mercantile world. In 
the early fall of 1884 the establishment was removed to more spacious quarters, 
the proprietors having arranged for the possession of the building on the corner 
of West Bay and Laura streets. They have also purchased one of the most valu- 
able corner lots in the city, and will have a spacious building of their own erected 
before the present lease expires. Mr. Charles IT. JoneSj tlie founder, is a native of 
Georgia, and was in the Confederate army, but Avent North immediately after the 
war, and resided in New York City until he came to Jacksonville in October, 
1881. In New York he had an extensive literary and journalistic experience 
editing the Eclectic Magazine and Appleton's Journal, and as contributor to other 
leading journals. The literary and financial success of the Florida Times-Union 
and the Florida Weekly Times is a marvel in journalism. 



journal of C^otntnerc^ 

AND PRICE-CURRENT. 

A Weekly Paper Devoted to the General Commercial Interests 
of Baltimore and the South. 



Trice $3.00 a Year. BALTIMORE, MD. Singib Copies 6 Cents. 



G^ 



sJ 



HE Onl^^ Paper in ttie Soutti for ORO^ 



CERS, COUNTRY NlKRC HANTS, COIVE^ 



IMISSION HOUSKS, SHIRRKRS OK 

F*RODUCE, KTC . 

The Journal, of Commerce was purchased by the present publishers in August, 
1886, from the estate of the late George U. Porter, who established it in 1850. It is the 
only general trade paper of any standing in the entire South, and has for 36 years been 
the acknowledged exponent and representative of the commercial interests of Baltimore. 
The present publishers have given it a wider field, and it is their purpose to make it a 
paper that will be indispensable to every merchant in the Southern States. It is under the 
same management that has in 4 years brought the Manufacturers' Record to its present 
position as the most widely known and quoted industrial pap -r in the country. Since 
taking possession of it the publishers have inaugurated several changes, omitting some 
features and adding other?, and we will endeavor to make every issue an improvement 
upon the last. There is nothuig slow or antiquated about it. It is live, vigorous, enter- 
prising and wide-awake; alwa3S up with, or in advance of the times, and thoroughly 
readable. In its editorial and news columns it deals with live topics in a live manner. Its 
review of the markets and quotations of prices are exhaustive; are compiled with the 
utmost care, and present the most satisfactory, thorough and reliable retiex of the 
state of the markets. 

The attention given to matters of general commercial interest, its General Jobbing Quotations, 
and accurate review of the markets in FOOD STUFFS, URAIN, FLOUR, TOBACCO, 
LUMBER, COTTOy, NAVAL STORES, and FRODUCE in GENERAL, make the 
■paper of special value to Country Merchants, and to Grocers, Commission Houses a?id Shippers of 
Produce. 

The Paper has now a large circiilation among' this 
class of trade in Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, 
North Carolina, &c., and its advertising columns offer a 
most valuable medium through which WHO LESALE 
GROCERS and DEALERS IN FOOD SUPPLIES. MArJU- 
FACTURERS OF SPECIALTIES. COMMISSION HOUSES 
and JOBBERS IN GENERAL may reach the trade in 
these States and farther South, 

IIt^"Sample Copies Sent on Application. 

Manufacturers' Record Co., Publishers, 

BA.LTIIVIORK, N^D. 





-Uf-L 1 X L \J 



FACTURERS 




« A WEEKLY P;iPEK # 

TDevoted to the iVrarviJifa.cti-iring, iVlin.irLg; and Raif"- 

road. In.terests, and. Generail I nd.T-i atrial 

Prosfress of the Sotathiern. States. 



HAVING FOR ITS AIM THE UPBUILDING OF SOUTHERN MANU- 
FACTURES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MATERIAL 
RESOURCES OF THE SOUTH. 



A Live, Progressive, Vigorous Journal, the Acknowledged Exponent 
and Representative of the SoiitJi s Industrial Interests. 



PRICK S3.00 A YKAR. 



The Manufacturers' Record is more extensively quoted and more highly commended by the 
press than any other industrial or trade paper in existence. It is everywhere commended for the 
accuracy and thoroughness of its articles and statistics on Southern development. Its weekly issues 
constitute an authentic history of the industrial progress of the Southern States. From no other 
source can so much reliable information relative to Southern affairs be gathered. To those who have 
not read it regularly its weekly record of Southern material growth will be a revelation. The 
Atlanta Constitution says of it: "One of the ablest industrial journals in the country." The 
Augusta Chronicle says: "No paper in the Union has more entitled itself to Southern gratitude 
than this enterprising and reliable journal. * * It has come to be the standard of authority in the 
matter of Southern advancement. * * Its labor in this work has been remarkable, and its care and 
accuracy phenomenal. * * It has conferred an incalculable benefit upon our section." The 
Charleston News and Courier says: "It has in many ways contributed largely to the material 
development of the South, and deserves a wide circulation throughout the Southern States." The 
New Orleans Times-Democrat says : "The press of the South would be recreant to its mission if it 
did not recognize the excellent work being done in the cause of Southern development by the enter- 
prising Manufacturers' Record, published in Baltimore." The Southern Lumberman, of 
Nashville, says: '"The Baltimore Manufacturers' Record has spent more money, time and 
energy than perhaps any other paper in America trying to get at the exact facts in regard to Southern 
industrial progress." 

It has an extensive circulation in all the 14 Southern States, and is widely read in the North and 
West by capitalists, manufacturers and others who desire to keep posted on the industrial progress of 
the South, As a medium for manufacturers of machinery, mine and mill supplies, hardware, &c., 
desiring Southern trade, its advertising column'^ possess unequaled advantages. 

A feature of special importance is the Construction Department. Under this head is 
published a list of ail new enterpris»s in the South, with the names of persons connected with them. 
Its readers thus get the earliest obtainable info'-mation of new mills or factories to be erected, old 
ones to be rebuilt or enlarged, new furnaces to be started, mining companies organized, railroads to 
be built, public buildings to be erected, etc., etc. 

MANUFACTURERS' RECORD CO. 

F*u. t) 1 i s 111 e r s , 



BALTIMORE, MD. 



Ptablishers' Notice. 



The publishers of this book, as an effective method of advertising it, adopted 
the novel and expensive plan of placing a copy richly bound in Russia leather, 
with gilt title, in the reading room of all hotels of any standing in every 
city in the United States having a population of 10,000 or more; also in all 
public libraries, and in the saloon of all the principal ocean, coastwise and inland 
steamships and steamboats. On the following pages will be found a list of the 
hotels, libraries and steamers in each of which a copy of the book may be found. 
We publish this list here in order that persons traveling, who may become 
interested iu the book in one city, may learn where they can find a copy of it 
in the place they may next visit. The book is for sale at the following prices: 
bound in Russia, with gilt title, $6.00 ; in cloth, $2 50 ; in paper, $1.50. It will be 
sent postage paid to any part of the United States on receipt of price. 

MANUFACTURERS' RECORD CO. 



V 



HOTELS. 



ALABAMA. 
Anniston. 

Anniston Inn. 

BlUMIXGIIAM. 

Florence Hotel, 
Relay House. 

Mobile. 

Battle House, 
St. James Hotel, 
Laclede House. 

'Mo:7TGOMEKY. 

Exchange Hotel, 
Railroad Hotel, 
Central Hotel. 

ARKANSAS. 

Little Rock. 

Capital Hotel, 
Demin*,^ Hotel, 
Grand Central. 

ARIZONA. 

Tombstone, 

Aztec House, 
Russ House. 

CALIFOPvNIA. 

Los Angeles. 

Pico House, 

St. Charles Hotel. 

Oakland. 

Tubb's Hotel. 
Windsor Hotel. 



Sacramento. 

Capital Hotel, 
Laughani Hotel, 
Golden Eagle. 

San Francisco. 

Palace Hotel, 
Baldwin Hotel. 
Occidental, 
Lick House, 
Russ House. 

San Jose. 

Auzerais House. 

Stockton. 

Commercial Hotel. 

COLORxVDO. 

Denver. 

American House, 
Charpiot's Hotel, 
Grand Central Hotel, 
Inter-Ocean Hotel, 
St. James Hotel, 
Windsor Hotel. 

Leadville. 

Clarendon Hotel, 
Tabor Grand Hotel. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Bridgeport. 

Atlantic Hotel, 
Elm House, 
Sterling House. 



Fifth Avenue 
Hotel, 

« MADISON SQUARE, « 



Hew yoi^i^. 




Ttie Largest, Best Appointed, and. ^/Iost Liberally 

NIanaged Hotel in thie City, with, the most 

CerLtral and Uelightfnl Location. 



HITCHCOCK, DARLING & CO. 



HIRAM HITCHCOCK 


A. B. DARLING. 


Formerly of 


Formerly of 


St. Charles Hotel, 


Battle House, 


New Orleans. . 


Mobile^ Ala 



HOTELS. 



Danbury. 

New England Hotel, 
Turner Hotel. 

Derby. 

Mansion House. 

Hartford. 

Allyn House, 

Rates $3.50 Per Bay. 

American Hotel, 

Brower House, 

City Hotel, 

Park Central Hotel, 

United States Hotel, 

Rates $2.50 and $.3.00. 

Meriden. 

City Hotel, 
Winthrop Hotel, 

Rates $2.50 to |;4.00. 

Geo. H. Bowker & Co., Pro's, 

New Britain. 

Humphrey's House, 
Strickland House. 

Nevv^ Haven. 

Elliott House, 

$2.50 and $3.00 Per I>ay. 

New Haven House, 

$3.50 and $4.50 Per Day. 

Tremont Hotel, 
Tontine Hotel. 

New London. 

Crocker House, 
Pequot Hotel. 

Norwich. 

American Hotel, 
Wauregan House. 

Stamford. 

Stamford Hotel, 
Union Hotel. 

Waterbury. 

American Hotel, 
Franklin Hotel, 
Sco'ill Hotel. 



DAKOTA. 

BiSMARK. 

Custer Hotel, 
Merchants Hotel, 
Sheridan House, 
AYestern House. 

Deadwood. 

Cosmopolitan Hotel, 
Merchants Hotel, 
Went worth House. 

Fargo. 

European Hotel, 
Headquarters Hotel, 
St. Paul House, 
Sherman House, 
Tremont House, 
AYindsor House. 

Yankton. 

Jenck's Hotel, 
Merchant's Hotel, 
Morrison Hotel. 

DELAWARE. 
Wilmington. 

Clayton House. 
Dickinson Hotel, 
Felton Hotel, 
Grand Union Hotel. 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA- 
WASHINGTON. 

Arlington Hotel. 
Congressional Hotel, 
Ebbitt House, 
Metropolitan Hotel, 
National Hotel, 
Riggs House, 
St. James Hotel, 
Arno Hotel, 
AYelcker's Hotels 
Willard's Hotel, 
Wormley's Hotel, 



H 



c c^coocoo 



C>OC)OC>OC>OOC> 



offman 



H 



OOOOOOOOO^ > i ^ o 



otise 



Madison Square, New Y^^^- -^ 




A Favorite Family Hotel. 



European Plan. 



-n^HIS KANIOUS HOTKIv is prominently and delightfully 
located in the very centre of New York City, fronting Infth Avenue 
and the Madison vSquare Grounds. Convenient to all principal Theatres 
and other points of interest. The Broadway horse cars pass the door, and 
within one block of the 23d Street station of the Sixth Avenue Elevated 
Railroad. 

Location unsurpassed ; besides which no other Hotel can afford such 
palatial accommodations. 

The I-ioKF"^/rAT^[ House is on the European Plan, containing 
over four hundred elegantly-appointed rooms, en-suite and single, at 
prices ranging from $2.00 per day and upwards. The vSalons are fitted up 
in an elegant and artistic manner, with a view of affording every comfort 
and accommodation to guests. The Grand Banquet Hall is the most 
elaborately furnished room of its kind in America. The furniture and 
decorations have been selected in Europe at great expense, and high art 
is evidenced in all the surroundings. The Works of Art and articles of 
Vertu in this establishment are the choicest discriminating judgment 
could sele(5l, and no expense has been SDared to nmke this Hotel the most 
comfortable and attra6live in America. 

The Cuisine is Parisian, of peculiar excellence, and a special feature. 
The Restaurant is open daily from 5.30 A. M. until i o'clock A. M. 

Elegant Turkish, Russian, vSulphur, Electric and Medicated Baths are 
also among the Luxuries to be found on the premises. 



C. H. READ & CO., Proprietors. 



HOTELS. 



FLORIDA. 
Jacksonville. 

Everett Hotel, 
St. James Hotel, 
Tremont House, 

Tallahassee. 

New Leon Hotel. 

GEORGIA. 
Atlanta. 

Markham House, 

National Hotel, 

H. I. Kimball House. 

Augusta. 

Globe Hotel, 
Planters Hotel, 

Columbus. 

Central Hotel, 
Planters Hotel, 
Rankin House. 

Macon. 

Brown's Hotel, 
Lanier House, 
National Hotel. 

Savannah. 

Pulaski House, 
Screven House. 

IDAHO. 
Boise City. 

Overland Hotel. 

ILLINOIS 
Aurora. 

Hotel Evans. 

Belleville. 

Belleville House, 
Hickley House, 
National Hotel, 
Thomas House. 



Bloomington. 

Ashley House^ 
Phoenix Hotel, 

Chicago. 

Atlantic Hotel, 

Brevoort House, 

Briggs House, 

Burk's European Hotel, 

Clarendon House, 

Clifton House, 

Commercial Hotel, 

Continental Hotel, 

Farwell House, 

Gault House, 

Grand Pacific Hotel, 

Hotel Brunswick, 

Hotel Richelieu, 

L eland Hotel, 

McCoy's New European Hotel, 

Massasoit House, 

Matteson House, 

Merchants Hotel, 

Palmer House, 

Revere House, 

Sherman House, 

Southern Hotel, 

St. Caroline Court Hotel, 

Tremont House, 

Woodruff Hotel. 

Galesburg. 

Brown's Hotel, 
Union Hotel. 

Jacksonville. 

Dunlap House, 
Southern Hotel, 

JOLIET. 

Hotel St. Nicholas, 
Robertson House, 
Shurts' Hotel. 




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HENRY MILFORD SMITH & SON, 



F'ROPRIETORS. 



HOTELS. 



Peoria. 

City Hotel, 
Merchants Hotel, 
National Hotel, 
Peoria House, 
Union Depot, 

<5UINCY. 

European Hotel, 

New Windsor Hotel. 

St. James Hotel, 

ROCKFORD. 

American House, 
Holland Hotel, 

Rebuilt and Refurnished. 

Rock Island. 

Harper House, 
Rock I sland House. 

Springfield. 

Leland Hotel, 
Hotel Palace, 
Revere House, 

St. Nicholas. 

INDIANA. 

EVANSYILLE. 

Gait House, 

St. George Hotel, 

Sherwood House. 

Fort Wayne. 

Aveline House, 
Commercial House, 
Depot Hotel, 
Mayer House, 
Robinson House, 
Windsor Hotel. 

Indianapolis. 

Bates House. 
Brunswick Hotel, 
Grand Hotel, 
New Denison Hotel, 
New Occidental Hotel, 
Spencer House. 



LaFayette. 

Lahr House, 

St. Nicholas Hotel. 

LOGANSPORT. 

Johnston's New Hotel, 
Murdock Hotel, 
New Barnett House. 

New Albany. 

Central House, 
Occidental Hotel. 

Richmond. 

Arlington Hotel, 
Huntington Grand HoteL 

South Bend. 

Grand Central Hotel, 
Oliver House. 
Sherwood House. 

Terre Haute. 

National Hotel, 
Ohmer's Depot Hotel, 
Terre Haute House. 

lOWxl. 
Burlington. 

Grand Central, 

Hotel Duncan, 

Cedar Rapids. 

Grand Hotel. 
Northwestern Hotel, 
Pullman Hotel, 
Southern Hotel. 

Council Bluffs. 

Metropolitan Hotel, 
Ogden House, 
Pacific Hotel. 

Davenport. 

Ackley House, 
Kimball House, 
St. James. 

Des Moines. 

Aborn House, 
Capital Hotel, 




'pA RvC ftvENUB 421'^ AND 41^- §TS, 
^ ^ is[ e: oo ^x'OT^ K. ^^ 

— V HUMTIMG AND HAMMONiD. — ~v-. 

Located ou Park Avenue, Fortieth to Forty-First Street, one block from 

Grand Central Depot. 



T/ie only first-class Hotel in New York City on both the 

MERICSN*MD*EUROPEIN*PLMS, 

It occupies the highest grade in New York, and is the health- 
iest of locations. 



FOR TRANSIENT GUESTS, 

Tourist Travelers, or as Residence for Families, no healthier or 
pleasanter place can be found in New York City. 



Patrons of the Murray Hii.l Hotei. have their Baggage transferred 
to and from the Grand Central Depot free of charge. 



HUNTING & HAMMOND. 



HOTELS. 



Kirkwood Hotel, 
Morgan Hotel. 

Dubuque. 

European Hotel, 
Julian Hotel, 
Key City Hotel, 
Lorimer House, 
Tremont House. 

Keokuk. 

Laclede House, 
Patterson House, 
Stanleigh House. 

KANSAS. 

Atchison. 

Byram House, 
Lindell Hotel, 
St. James Hotel, 
Union Depot Hotel. 

Leavenworth. 

Continental Hotel, 
Planters Hotel, 

TOPEKA. 

Copeland Hotel, 
Gordon House, 
Windsor Hotel. 

KENTUCKY. 
Covington. 

Arrington Hotel, 
Ashbrook House, 
Central Hotel. 

Lexington. 

Ashland House, 
Phoenix Hotel. 

Louisville. 

Alexander's Hotel, 
Central Hotel, 
Commercial House, 
Fifth Avenue Hotel, 
Gait House, 
Louisville Hotel. 



Newport. 

Madison Hotel. 

LOUISIANA- 

New Orleans. 

Cassidy Hotel, 
City Hotel, 
Gregg House, 
Hotel Denechaud, 
Hotel Royal, 
Hotel Windsor, 
St. Charles Hotel. 

MAINE. 

Augusta. 

Augusta House, 
Hotel North. 

Bangor. 

Bangor Exchange, 
Bangor House, 

Biddeford. 

Biddeford Hotel. 

Lewiston. 

DeWitt Hotel, 
Marston Hotel. 

Portland. 

Falmouth House, 
Preble House, 
United States Hotel. 

MARYLAND. 
Baltimore. 

Barnum's Hotel, 
Carrollton Hotel, 
Eutaw House, 
Guy's Hotel, 
Hotel Rennert, 
Howard House, 
Maltby House, 
Mansion House, 
Mount Vernon Hotel, 
St. James Hotel. 



•^. BOSTON. 

O 



< 



Henry b. rice & co. 




h- Location. 

Equally-*- 
-*- Desirable 

for 
Business!^ 

or 
«^ Pleasure, 

Perfect 



^m% 



M^iis $3.00 per DAY] According to 



Without 



I 



E'$l.00 " 



t( 



J- Size 

And Location. 



HOTELS. 



Cumberland. 

Elberon Hotel, 
Queen City Hotel, 
St. Nicholas Hotel, 
Windsor Hotel. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Attleboro. 

Ryder Hotel. 

Boston. 

Adams House, 
American House, 

Brunswick Hotel, 

Clarendon Hotel, 
Crawford House, 
Hotel Creighton, 
Hotel Vendome, 
New Marlboro Hotel, 
Parker House, 
Park House, 
Quincy House, 
Revere House, 
Sherman House, 

Treraont House, 
United States Hotel, 
Young's Hotel. 

Brocton. 

Hotel Belmont. 

PiTCHBURG. 

American House, 
Fitchburg Hotel, 

Haverhill. 

Hotel Webster. 

HOLYOKE. 

Holyoke House, 
Windsor Hotel, 

Rates $2.50 to $4.00 

Geo. H. Bowkeb, Proprietor. 

Lawrence. 

American Hotel, 
Globe Hotel, 



Lowell. 

American House 
Merrimac House, 
St. Charles Hotel. 

Lynn. 

Sagamore Hotel, 
Hotel Boscobel. 

New Bedford. 

Parker House. 

Newburyport. 

Merrimac House. 

North Adams. 

Mansion House, 
Wilson House. 

Northampton. 

Mansion House. 

Pittsfield. 

American House, 
Berkshire House. 

Quincy. 

Robertson Hotel. 

Salem. 

Essex House. 

Springfield. 

Cooley's Hotel, 
Hayne's Hotel, 
Hotel Warwick, 
Massasoit House. 

M. ic E. S. Chapin, Proprietors. 

Taunton. 

City Hotel. 

Weymouth. 

Weymouth Hotel. 

Worcester. 

Bay State House. 

Kales $3.00 and $3.50. 

Lincoln House. 

Rates $3.30 Per Day. 

Waldo House. 



UNION ^ SQUARE « HOTEL 



AND 



HOTEL DAM. '^ 

European Plan. 

iOUARE- AND I5TH ItRDET, 

« NEW YORK. - 




rco/*^^ 



Both Hotels (conne6lin.e^) are most centrally and delightfully located 
in the heart of the Metropolis, possessing all modern and sanitary 
improvements, are elegantly furnished throughout, stri6\ly fire-proof, and 
furnish first-class accommodations for 400 guests. 

The Restaurant and Dining Hall, including service and attention, 
are unsurpassed by any Hotel in the country. 

Horse cars to and from every se<5lion of the city pass the door 
every few seconds. 

dam: & DeREVERK, Proprietors. 



HOTELS. 



MICHIGAN. 
Adkian. 

Lawrence House. 

Bay City. 

Campbell Hotel, 
New Fraser House. 

Detroit. 

Bl•uns^vick Hotel, 

Cass House, 

Griffin House, 

0pp. Mxch. Central Depot. 
Rates $S.OO Per I>ay. 

Griswold House, 
Michi^au Exchange. 
Russell House, 
Stanvvix Hotel. 

East Saginaw. 

Bancroft House, 
Everett House. 

Grand Rapids. 

Clarendon House, 
Eagle Hotel. 
Mortan House, 
Sweet's Hotel. 

Jackson. 

Hibbard House, 
Hurd House. 

Muskegon. 

Arlington Hotel, 
Occidental Hotel. 

Saginaw. 

Bauman House, 
Crowley Hotel, 
New Taylor House. 

MINNESOTA. 
Minneapolis. 

Bellevue House, 
Clark House, 



Merchants Hotel, 
National Hotel, 
Nicollet House, 
Pauley House, 
St. James Hotel, 
West Hotel, 

Absolutely Fire Proof. 

$3.00 Per Day and ujncards. 
C. \V. She HARD, Manager. 
Windsor House. 

St. Paul. 

Clarendon Hotel, 
Exchange Hotel, 
Grand Central Hotel, 
Hotel Ryan, 
International Hotel, 
Merchants Hotel, 
Merritt Plouse, 
Metropolitan Hotel, 
St. James, 
Sherman House, 
Windsor Hotel, 
Winslow House. 

Winona. 

Huff House, 
Jewell House, 
Ludwig's Hotel. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

ViCKSBURG. 

Lamadrid Hotel, 
Pacific Hotel, 
Washington Hotel. 

MISSOURI. 
Hannibal, 

Kettering's Hotel, 
Park Hotel, 
Planters House. 

Kansas City. 

* 

Blossom House, 
Centropolis Hotel, 



The SEABOARD AIR LINE, 

The Old-Established Route Between the 

NORTH™ SOUTH 

via Baltimore, Old Point and Norfolk. 

TRAYElvERS leaving New York via Pennsylvania Railroad at 4.30 
P. M. and Philadelphia at 6.30 P. M. arrive at Baltimore in time 
to connect with Bay LinEJ STEAMERS for Norfolk and Portsmouth. Train 
stops at the wharf, thus avoiding transfer through the city. 

THE NEW AND ELEGANT STEAMERS OF 



THK BAY LINE 






Le^ve Baltimore daily (Sundays excepted) at 9.30 p. M. from Canton Wharf. 
All the comforts and luxuries of a first-class hotel are afforded the 
traveler. Spacious and elegant saloons and staterooms, lighted by 
ele6lricity and furnished with an especial view to comfort. Unsurpassed 
cuisine, w^hich is made a specialty with this Line. Elegant service and 
courteous attention. 

Direct Connections from Portsmouth via 

The Seaboard & Roanoke Railroad, 
The Raleigh & Gaston, 

Raleigh & Augusta Air Line, 

And Carolina Central Railroad, 
And at Weldon with Atlantic Coast Line 

AND THEIR CONNECTIONS FOR 

RALEIGH, CHARLOTTE, WILMINGTON, 

CHARLESTON, AIKEN, SAVANNAH, 

•:•:• FLORIDA * 
And All F*olnts Soutthi. 

JOHN M. 'ROBINSON, Baltimore, President. 

F. W. CLARK, Raleigh, N. C, Gen. Pass. Agt. 



HOTELS. 



Coates House, 
Hotel Brunswick, 
Lindell Hotel, 
Metropolitan Hotel, 
Pacific House, 
St. James Hotel, 
Union Depot Hotel. 

St Joseph. 

Bacon House, 
Commercial House, 
Pacific House, 
Saunders' Hou§e, 
Union Depot Hotel, 
Watson House. 

St. Louis. 

Barnum's Hotel, 

Laclede Hotel, 

Lindell Hotel, 

Planters House, 

Southern Hotel, 

St. James Hotel, 

Thoii. P. 3Iillei\ Proprietor. 
Rates $2.00 and $2.50. 

Lafayette Hotel, 
Hotel Brown, 
Hotel Belvedere, 
Eyerett House, 
Hotel Moser. 

MONTANA. 
Butte City. 

Centennial House, 
St. Nicholas Hotel. 

NEBRASKA. 
Lincoln. 

Arlington Hotel, 
Commercial Hotel, 
Grand Central Hotel, 
St. Charles Hotel, 
AVindsor Hotel. 



Omaha. 

American House, 
Canfield House, 
Causin's Hotel. 
Creighton Hotel, 
Millard Hotel, 
Paxton Hotel, 
St. James Hotel, 
Windsor Hotel. 

NEVADA. 

Virginia City. 

International Hotel, 
Molinelli House. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

CONCOIID. 

Eagle Hotel, 
Phenix Hotel. 

Dover. 

American House, 

Franklin Hotel, 

Mew Hampshire Hotel. 

Manchester. 

City Hotel, 
Manchester House, 
Windsor Hotel. 

Nashua. 

Tremont House. 

NEW JERSEY. 
Camden. 

West Jersey House. 

Elizabeth. 

Sheriden House. 

Hoboken. 

Busch's Hotel, 
Duke's House, 
Meyers' Hotel. 

Jersey City. 

Taylor's Hotel. 



Ricliniond and York Riygf Line 

IN CONNECTION WITH THE 

RICHMOND & DANVILLE RAILROAD 

TO 

RICHMOND, DANVILLE, .RALEIGH, 

CHARLOTTE C0LUMBL4, 
Augusta, Atlanta, Birmingham, 

AND 

# ALL POINTS SOUTH. « 



HPHE Superb new Steamers of this Line, first-class in 
every respect, leave Pier 2 Light Street Wharf, Balti- 
more, daily (Sundays excepted) at 4 P. M., connecting at 
West Point, Va., with the Richmond & Danville system, 
for all Southern Points. 



THE MOST PLEASANT AND ENJOYABLE 
ROUTE TO THE SOUTH. 



Office No. 90 Light Street Wharf. 

G. F. nfkuham: r. foster, 

General Freight and Ticket Agent. General Manager, 



HOTELS. 



Continental Hotel, 
Park Hotel. 

New Brunswick. 
City Hotel, 
Whitehall House. 

Orange. 

Mansion House, 
Park Hotel. 

Paterson. 

Exchange Hotel, 
Hamilton House, 
United States Hotel. 

Trenton. 

American House, 
Joy's Hotel, 
National Hotel, 
Trenton Hotel. 

NEW MEXICO. 

Las Vegas. 

Plaza Hotel, 

St. Nicholas Hotel. 

Santa Fe. 

Place Hotel. 

NEW YORK. 
Albany. 

Delavan Hotel, 

Kenmore, 

Stanwix Hall. 

Merchants Hotel. 

Auburn. 

Gaylord House, 
National Hotel, 
Osborne Hotel. 

BlNGHAMPTON. 

Hotel Bennett, 

Crandall House, 
Exchange Hotel, 
Spaulding House. 



Brookltn. 

Pierrepont House. 

Buffalo. 

Continental Hotel, 
Genesee House, 

Ainorioan & European Plan. 

Mansion House, 

MOST CONVENIENT TO 

I>epots and Business. 
Rates $2.50 and $3.00. 

Stafford House, 
Tifft House, 

Harris & Buck, Proprietors. 
CENTRALLY LOCATED. 

$3.00 and $1.00. 

United States Hotel. 

Cohoes. 

Cataract Hotel, 
Harmony Hotel. 

Elmira. 

Delavan Hotel, 
Frasier House, 
Haight's Hotel, 
Rathbun House, 
Wycoff House. 

Ithaca. 

Clinton House. 

Kingston. 

Eagle Hotel, 
Kingston Hotel, 
Mansion House. 

Lockport. 

American Hotel, 
Judson House. 

Long Island City. 

Long Island City HoteL 

Newburgh. 

Baldwin House, 
Merchants Hotel, 
United States Hotel. 



Windsor Hotel 



•:?:• FIFTH AVENUE, •*• 



Between 46th and 47th Sts. J^EW YOF(K. 




One of thie Nlost Perfect and ConntfortalDle 
Hotels in tine World.. 

Haw^k: & Wethkr-BEE, 

PROPRIETORS. 



On the Finest Avenue in the City of New York 



and. 



In the Most Desirable Part of the City. 



HOTELS. 



New York. 

Aberdeen Hotel, 
Albemarle Hotel, 
Ashland House, 
Astor House, 
Barrett House, 
Belvidere Hotel, 
Brevoort House, 
Buckingham Hotel, 
Carlton Hotel, 
Clarendon Hotel, 
Coleman House, 
Colonnade Hotel, 
Continental Hotel, 
Cosmopolitan Hotel, 
Earle's Hotel, 
Everett House, 
Fifth Av(;nue Hotel. 
French's Hotel, 
Gedney House, 
Gilse}^ House, 
Hotel Dam, 
Hotel Madison, 
Hotel Normandie, 
Hotel Royal, 
Hotel St. George, 
Hotel St. Marc, 
Hotel St. Stephen, 
Hotel Shelburne, 
Hotel Vendome, 
Kitsell House, 
Langham Hotel, 
Madison Avenue Hotel, 
Manhattan Hotel, 
Metropolitan Hotel, 
Morton House, 
Murray Hill Hotel, 
New York Hotel, 
Occidental Hotel, 
Park Avenue Hotel, 
Parker House, 
Plaza Hotel, 
Prcscott House, 
Rossmore Hotel, 



St. Cloud Hotel, 
St. Denis Hotel, 
St. James Hotel, 
St. Nicholas Hotel, 
Sherwood Hotel, 
Sinclair House, 
Stevens House, 
Sturtevant House, 
Tremont House, 
Union Square Hotel, 
United States Hotel, 
Victoria Hotel, 
Westminster Hotel, 
Windsor Hotel. 

Niagara Falls. 

National Hotel, 
Prospect House, 
Cataract House. 

Ogdensburg. 

National Hotel, 
Seymour House, 
Windsor House. 

Oswego. 

Doolittle House, 
Lake Shore Hotel. 

POUGHKEEPSIE. 

Morgan House, 
Nelson House, 

Rochester. 

Brackett House, 

Congress Hall, 

National Hotel, 

New Osburn House, 

Commercial Headquarters, 
$2.00 and $2.50. 

Powers' Hotel. 

Absolutely Fire Proof. 
$3.00 and $4.00. 

The Windsor. 
Whitcomb House. 



Thk EIvEg^vnx New IPj^j^j^ce^ HoteIv oi^ 

^ iLEVELAPlD, ©HIO. ^ 



5i)eautifuny ^ituated on Guclid ©K venue. •.• iJine gnrroundings. 

Only threi; souakks from Post Office and nkak Public Squakf.. 

.-^Tbe only Strictly Fire Proof Hotel in UQYdhn&.'k^^ 
Incandescent electric Lcights throughout, and Gveiy I^ooni Reated by Steam. 




-JR.OOMS JINGLE AND ^N-SuiTE. 

In IVIociern Elegance, Appointments and. Cnisine 
"The Stillis/[A]SI " its eqnal to the Kinest 
Hotels in tine World. 

Tourists, Foreigners and Wedding Parties 

Will find Perfect atjd Luxurious Accommodations. 
Apartments can he secured in advance by addressinrj. 

J. AVARRl-N COLEMAN, JR., 

MANAGE/:. 



HOTELS. 



\ 



Home. 

Arlington Hotel, 
Stanwix Hall. 

ScnE5.ECTADY. 

Carley House, 
Givens Hotel. 

Syracuse. 

Congress Hall, 
Empire House, 
Globe Hotel, 
Hotel Burns, 
Vanderbilt House, 

r. B. B AYTON, Proprietor. 
Free Cabs to and from trains. 
Rates $2.50 and $3.00. 



Troy. 



American House, 
Mansion House, 
Kevere House, 
Troy House. 

TJtica. 

Bagg's Hotel, 
. Butterfield House. 

Watertown. 

Kirby House, 
Woodruff House, 

F. W. Haydon, Proprietor. 
YONKERS. 

Getty House, 
Yonkers Hotel. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

Charlotte. 

Central Hotel, 
Lelmont Hotel. 

Raleigh. 

Yarboro Hotel. 

Wilmington. 

Commercial Hotel, 
Purcell House. 



OHIO. 
Akron. 

Empire Hotel, 

Hotel Buchtel, 

Windsor House. 

Canton, 

American House, 
Barnett House. 
Hurford Hotel. 

Chillicothe. 

Emmitt House, 
Hotel Francais, 
New Warner House. 

Cincinnati. 

Burnet House, 

Crawford House, 

The Dennison. 

li'ew. Modern. Elegant 
$2.00 ami $2.50. 

Gibson House, 
Grand Hotel, 
Hotel Emery, 
Palace Hotel. 

$2.00 and $2.50 Per I>ay. 

250 Rooms, (140 Frokt.) 

St. Clair Hotel, 
St. James Hotel, 
St. Nicholas Hotel. 

Cleveland. 

American House, 

Forest City House, 

Hollenden Hotel, 

Kennard House, 

The Stillman. 

KeiD. Modern. Elegant. 
Strictly Fire Proof. 
Finest Table Seuvice. 
Rates $3.00 to $5.00. 

Weddell House. 

Columbus. 

American Hotel, 
Exchange Hotel, 



PIEDMONT 

AIR IvINB. 



TPh-rough. Kreigh-t 

<;> AND '^ 

Pa^^enser Route. 



AGENTS AT ALL PRINCIPAL POINTS. 



RICHMOND & DANVILLE R. R. SYSTEM. 



Yirginia Midland DiY. 



York River Line.... 
Bich'd&DanYilleDiv. 



Bortl Carolina DiY... 

Atlanta & Charlotte 
Air Line Div. 



«ortliest'nR.R.o{Ga. 
Sontli Carolina Div. . 

Colnmhlaft Greenville 
Div. 



UsfnH-CarolinaDiv. 



Main Line 

Manassas Branch 

Warrenton Branch 

Gordoasville Branch 

Franklin Branch 

Washington & Ohio Div.. 



Bait., Ches. & Rich. S. B.Co. 
Rich., York Ri. & Ches.R. R 



Main Line 

Rich. & Mecklenburjj R. R, 
Milton & Sutherlin R. R.... 



Main Line 

No thwestern N. Car. R. R, 
State University R. R 



Main Line 

Elberton Air Line 

Hartwell R. R 

Lawrenceville Branch. 
Roswell R. R 



Athens Division 

Tallulah Falls Branch. 



Char., Col. & Aug. R. R... 
Atlantic Tenn. & t.)hio R.R. 

Chester 8: Lenoir R. R 

Chester & Cheraw R. R . . . . 



Alexandria to Danville, Va 

Manassas to Strasburg Jct.,Va. 
Warrenton Jc. to Warrenton, Va. 

Orange to Gordonsville,Va 

Franklin Jet to Rocky Mount. 
Alexandria to Round Hill,Va. . . 



Main L'ne 

Spi'g, Union & Col. R. R. . 

Blue Ridge R. R 

Laurens Branch 

Abbeville Branch 



Baltimore to West Point,Va.. 
Richmond to West Point, Va. 



Richmond to Greensboro, N. C. 
KLeysville to Clarksville, Va..., 
Sutherlin to Milton, Va 



Goldsboro to Charlotte, N. C 

Greensboro to Salem, N. C 

University to Chapel Hill, N. C. 



Charlotte to Atlanta, Ga 

Toccoa to Elberton, Ga 

W. Bowersville to Hartwell, Ga. 
Suwannee to Lawrenceville, Ga. 
Roswell Junction to Roswell, Ga. 



Lula to Athens, Ga 

Rabun Gap Jet. to Tallulah, Ga, 



Charlotte to Augusta, Ga 

Charlotte to Statesville, N. C. 

Chester to Lenoir, N. C 

Chester to Lancaster, S. C . . . . 



Miles. 



Columbia to Greenville, S. C. . 
Spartanburg to Alston, S. C... 

Benton to Walhalla, S. C 

Newberry to Laurens, S. C. . . . 
Hodges to Abbeville, S. C 



Salisbury to Paint Rock, N. C. 



Main Line , -- 

Murphy Branch 1 Asheville to Jarretts, N. C. 

Total Mileage 



233 
62 

9 

9 

37 
50 



100 

38 



189 

31 
10 



223 

28 



267 

51 
10 
10 
10 



40 



191 

44 

109 

29 



143 
68 

42 



31 



190 
100 



400 



138 



230 



261 



348 



61 



373 



296 



990 



8.397 



HOTELS. 



Hotel Gardner, 
Neil House, 
Park House, 

North of Union I>epot. 

H. Kauffman, Proprietor. 

United States Hotel. 

Dayton. 

Beckle House, 
Phillips' House. 

Rebuilt and Refnrnistaed. 

A. B. lliDQWAY, Pro' p. 

Hamilton. 

Straub Hotel, 
St. Charles Hotel, 
Phillips House. 

Portsmouth, 

Biggs Hotel, 
Central House, 
Legler House, 
Weber Hotel, 

Sandusky. 

Bings House, 
Colton House, 
Sloan House, 
West Hotel. 

Sprin«field. 

Arcade Hotel. 

strictly First Class. 

H. L. RoCKFiELD, Pro'p. 

Lagonda House, 
St. James Hotel. 

Steubenville. 

Hotel Hinds, 
New Imperial, 
United States Hotel. 

Toledo. 

Boody House, 
Burnet House, 
Hotel Madison, 
Merchants Hotel. 
The Jefferson. 



YOUNGSTOWN. 

Morton Hotel, 
Tod House, 

.$2.00 and ^3.50. 

Zanesville. 

Clarendon Hotel, 
New Zane House. 

OREGON. 
Portland. 

Esmond Hotel, 

Holton House, 

Merchants Hotel, 

St. Charles. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 
Allegheity. 

Allegheny House, 
Central Hotel, 
Girard Hotel. 

Allentown. 

Allen House, 
American HoteL 

Altoona. 

Arlington Hotel, 
Globe Hotel, 
Logan House. 

Chester. 

Beale House, 
Brown's Hotel, 
Columbia House, 
AVashington House. 

Easton. 

Central Hotel, 
Franklin House, 
Swan Hotel, 
United States HoteL 



Erie. 



Arlington Hotel, 

New, Strictly First Class. 
Rates $2.00 Per Day. 
Allen & Morton, Prop's. 

Moore's Hotel, 

Reed House. 



Is the name of one of the prettiest and healthiest towns in Florida (or 
any other State). It is situated on the east shore of Lake Newnan, a 
beautiful sheet of water some 'nine miles in length, by four in width, 
abounding in fish. It is ten miles east of Gainesville, in the county 
which is known to be the most fertile in the State — Alacliua — three 
miles from Rochelle Station, on the Florida Southern Eailroad, and 
four miles west of Gampville, on the F. R. & 'N. Railroad. In addition 
to these facilities, the new Melrose and Mickanopy Railroad is to run 
through Windsor, so we shall be amply provided with railroad com- 
munication. 

Windsor embraces a tract of about 4,000 acres, quite a portion of 
which had been cleared and cultivated. The scil is neither the white sand 
of so large a portion of Florida, or the red clay of Georgia, but a dark 
rich loam, producing excellent crops of all varieties of vegetables, and 
oranges, peaches, pears and all the small fruits thrive remarkably well 
here; a large proportion of the land lays some forty to fifty feet higher 
than the lake. The lots offered for sale run from one to twenty acres ; 
several beautiful lake fronts. The place is remarkable for its health- 
fulness, and has been noted for health for forty years, being located on 
the ridge midway between Ocean and Gulf, giving it a steady, even 
climate, no hot nights and few insects. There are already some sixty 
dwellings, four stores, three churches, schools, two saw and planing 
mills. No place in Florida where so much money has been laid out in 
beautifying the streets. There are some twenty miles of shade trees 
set, bojced with latticed boxes, and whitewashed ; streets nicely graded, 
and as no liquor is allowed to be sold we have no rowdyism. Our 
society is very good. If you are looking for a location send to us for a 
more full description of Windsor, and we will guarantee our descrip- 
tion to be correct and not exaggerated, and we will agree to refund 
expenses if you do not find it so on making us a visit. Send for circu- 
lar. Also lands in various parts of the State for sale. We make a 
specialty of Alachua and Hernando Counties lands. Town lots at 
Inverness. 

Our principal office is at 75 West Bay Street, Jacksonville, where 
you will find a list of city and suburban" peopehty for sale. 

G. B. GRIFFIN & SON, 
p^ eal ]^^tate and J^ oan^, 

75 WEST BAY STREET, 

(YELLOW FRONT,* 

JACKSONVILLE, FLA., OR WINDSOR. 



UOTELS. 



v 



Harrisbtjrg. 

Bolton House. 

L.arjE^'Cst If oteE. Fir^t Claris. 

Jones Hotel, 
Lochiel Hotel. 

United States HoteL 

Lancaster. 

City Hotel, 
Cooper House, 
Michael's Grape Hotel, 
Stevens House. 

$2.50. Commercial Rate $2.00 
NORRISTOAVN. 

Hartranft House. 
AYmdsor House. 

Philadelphia. 

Aldiue Hotel, 
American Hotel, 
Bingham House, 
Colonnade Hotel, 
Continental Hotel, 
Girard House, 
Guy's Hotel, 
Hotel Bellevue, 
Hotel Lafayette, 
St. Cloud Hotel, 
St. George Hotel, 
West End Hotel. 

Pittsburgh. 

Albemarle Hotel. 
Central Hotel, 
Hotel Anderson, 
Hotel Bayer. 

Monongahela House. 

Strictly First Class. 
Kates f 3.C0 to 14.00. 
€reo. S. Crriscom, Proprietor, 
J. E. H. Kelley, Manager. 

Robinson Hotel, 

St. Charles Hotel, 

Seventh Avenue Hotel. 



POTTSVILLE. 

Merchants Hotel, 
Pennsylvania Hall HoteL 

11eadin(}. 

American House, 
Central Hotel, 
Keystone House, 
Mansion House, 
Ninth Avenue House. 

SCRANTON. 

Commercial Hotel, 
Forest House, 
Lackawanna Yalley House, 
Parker House, 
St. Charles Hotel, 
Scranton House, 
Wyoming House, 

Shenandoah. 

Ferguson House, 
Globe Hotel, 
Merchants Hotel. 

WlLKESBARRE. 

Bristol House, 
Exchange Hotel, 
Luzerne House, 
Wj'oming Valley House. 

WiLLIAMSPOKT. 

City Hotel, 

Hepburn House. 
Park Hotel, 
Porter House. 

York. 

Central House, 
National Hotel, 
Washington House. 

RHODE ISLAND. 

Lincoln. 

Union Hotel 



TTtie Baltimore 



Journal of Commerce, 

^ ^eekly (Commercial ^aper, 

5^evoted to the Geucral Trade Interests of Baltimore and the South. 



It has a Large Circulation among the Business Houses of Baltimore, 
and among Grocers, General Dealers, Shippers of Produce, &c., in the South. 

It is a full and reliable source of information on all topics pertaining 
to the Trade and Commerce of the seclion it represents. 

Subscription $3.00 A Year. 

Published by the MANUFACTURERS' RECORD CO. 

S. E. Cor. Exchange Place and Commerce Street, 

Baltimore, NId. 



HOTELS. 



Kewport. 

Aquidneck Hotel, 
Ocean House, 
Perry House. 

Providence 

Hotel Dorrance, 
Narragansett Hotel. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Charleston. 

Charleston Hotel, 
Pavilion Hotel, 
Victoria Hotel, 
Waverly House. 

Columbia. 

Columbia House, 
Grand Central Hotel, 
Wright's Hotel. 

TENNESSEE. 

Chattanooga. 

Chattanooga Hotel, 
Read House, 
Stanton House. 

Memphis. 

Clarendon Hotel, 
Gayoso Hotel, 
Peabody Hotel. 

Nashville. 

Gilchrist's Hotel, 
Maxwell House, 
Nicholson House. 

TEXAS. 
Austin. 

Avenue House, 
Brunswick Hotel, 
Raymond Hotel, 
Southern Hotel. 

Dallas. 

Grand Windsor Hotel, 
St. George's Hotel. 



Fort AVoktii. 

El Paso Hotel, 
Grand Central Hotel, 
Lindell Hotel, 
Mansion Hotel, 
Metropolitan Hotel, 
Planters Hotel, 
Waterman Hotel. 

Galveston. 

Beach Hotel, 
Girardin Hotel, 
Tremont House, 
Washington House. 

Houston. 

Capital Hotel, 
Hutchins House, 
Tremont House. 

San Antonio. 

Central Hotel, 
Hord's Hotel, 
Hotel Maverick, 
Menger Hotel, 
St. Leonard Hotel, 

UTAH. 

Salt Lake City. 

Clift House, 
Continental Hotel, 
Walker House, 
White Hotel. 

VERMONT. 

Burlington. 

City Hotel. 

Van Ness and American Hotel. 

Rutland 

Bardwell House, 
Bates House, 
Berwick House. 



J)uplex • • 3team *.• pumps 




Send for Catalogue. 



^ PUMPS ^' 



For all Duties, and Guaranteed. 



Parts made to Gauge and all 
Interchangeable. 




T^ OR Com.pactn.ess, Sim.- 

plicity, QtAietness, Re= 

liability ^^^ Duirabllity, tlnese 
Fijimps Have INTo Equial. 
No Short Sxroke. 




HALL STEAM PUMP COMPANY, 



Gl Liberty Street, 



NKw^ York:. 



HOTELS. 



YIRrTlMA. 

Alexandria. 

Braddock House, 
Green Mansion House. 

Lynchburg. 

\rlington Hotel, 
Norvell House. 

Norfolk. 

New Atlantic Hotel, 
Purcell House. 

Old Point. 

Hygeia Hotel. 

Petersburg. 

Bollingbrook Hotel, 
City Hotel, 
Jarrett's Hotel, 

Portsmouth. 

Ocean House. 

Richmond. 

American Hotel, 
Exchange and Ballard Hotel, 
Ford's Hotel, 
St. Clair Hotel. 

WASHINGTON TERKITORY 

Olympia. 

Carlton House. 

WEST VIRGINIA. 

Wheeling. 

Grant House, 
New McClure House, 
St. James Hotel, 
Stamm House. 



WISCONSIN. 

Eau Claiii. 

Eau Clair House. 
Galloway House. 

Fond-du-Lac. 

American House, 
Northwestern Hotel, 
Palmer House. 

La Crosse. 

Cameron House, 
International Hotel. 

Madison. 

Park Hotel, 
Ton-ya-wa-tha Hotel, 

Yilas Hotel. 

Milwaukee. 

Grand Avenue Hotel, 
Kirby House, 
Metropolitan Hotel, 
Plankiuton House, 
Hepublican House, 
St. Charles Hotel. 

i OsHKOsn. 

lievere House, 
Tremont House 

R.\cine. 

Blake Hotel, 
Huggins House. 

WYOMING TERIUTORY 

Cheyenne. 

Inter-Ocean Hotel. 
M. P Railroad Hotel. 




T^he Vendome, ^ 



Cor. Commonwealth Avenue and pARXMOUTH ^treet, 



•^- 



BOSTON 



"^fk^ 



©IRe eH'ot'ef ^CQsLornC is one of the largest and finest hotel structures in this country. 
Its elegance, spaciousness, sanitary excellence and unequalled location make it most desirable for 
transient visitors and tourists. It is also peculiarly attractive as a residence for ladies and families. 

It is situated in the Back Bay District, one of the grandest architectural sections to be found in 
any country, and surrounded by noteworthy public buildings,— the Art Museum, Public Library, 
Trinity, New Old South, First Baptist and other prominent churches, and schools, both public and 
private. 

Commonwealth Avenue (extending from the Public Garden to the new Park,) upon which The 
Vendome has its main front, is acknowledged to be the finest boulevard in America. It is two hundred 
and forty feet wide, and, through its centre, is an improved Park one hundred feet wide, lined with 
trees and shrubs, while facing il are the most costly and beautiful residences in the city. 

C. H. GREENLEAF & CO. 

>!< Proprietors. 



Amos Barnes, \ of Hotel Brunsiuick, 

J. W. DuNKLEE, i Boston. 

C. H. Greenleaf, of Profile House. 



-^{^ 



Profile House, 
FRANCONIA NOTCH, 

WhITK NlOUNTAINS. 



One of the Largest and Best of Leading First- Class Summer Resorts. 



Greenleaf, 
oj Vendome, Boston, 



TAFT & GREENLEAF, 

Proprietors. 



LIBRARIBS. 



Albany, N. Y. 

State Library, 
Y. M. C. A. 

Altox, III. 

Free Public Library. 

Baltimore, Md. 

Peabody Institute, 

Mercantile Library, 

Maryland Institute, 

Y. M. C. A., 

Enoch Pratt Free Library. 

Boston, Mass. 

Public Library, 

Young Men's Christian Union, 

Y. M. C. A. 

Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Y. M. C. A. 

Buffalo, N. Y. 

Y. M. C. A., 

Young Men's Association, 
ft 

Burlington, Vt. 

Billings Library. 

Charleston, S. C. 

Charleston Library. 

Chicago, III. 

Public Library, 
Chicago Athenaeum, 
Y. M. C. A. 



Cincinnati, O. 

Public Library, 

Young Men's Mercantile Library^ 

Mechanics' Institute Library. 

Cleveland, O. 
Y. M. C. A. 

Columbus, O. 

State Library, 
City Library. 

Council Bluffs, Iowa. 
Y. M. C. A. 

Detroit, Mich. 

Public Library. 

Greenville, S. C. 

Young Men's Libr^ay. 

Harrisburg, Pa. 
State Library. 

Hartford, Conn. 
State Library, 
Wadsworth Athenaeum. 

Indianapolis, Ind. 

Free City Library. 

Lafayette, Ind. 
Y. M. C. A. 

Louisville, Ky. 

Public Library, 

Louisville Library Association. 

Madison, Wis. 

City Library. 



GBT THB BEST. 

THE HERCULES 

Water Wheels 

Are the Best Water Wheels ever made. 



ocooooooooooooooooooo o 

A Good Water Y/heel Increases 

The Value of Your 

Whole Plant. 



Get the Best at First, and Avoid the 
Expense and Dolay of Chang- 
ing the Wheels. 



A Good Wheel will serve you well 
for Twenty Years. 



The Best is the Cheapest. It Does 

More Work, Lasts Longer, and 

Costs no more for Gears 

and Setting than a 

Common Wheel. 



The Hercules Gives the Most Power for its Size 

and the Highest Average Percentage 

from Full to One-Half G'ate of 

any Wheel Ever Made. 



oo_o_o o o o o o o o 006 00 o o o o"o o^ 




If you want to buy a new Water Wheel, if your old wheel does not 
give absolute satisfa6tion, if you would like to know just how perfe6l a 
a Water Wheel can be made, or if you are in any way interested in Water 
Wheels it will pay you to write for Catalogue No. 3 to the 

liOLYOKE MACHINE CO. 

WORCESTER, MASS. 



LIBRARIES. 



New Havek, Oonn. 
Y. M. C A, 

Young Men's Institute. 

Newport, R. I. 

Redwood Library, 

New York, X. Y. 

Astor Library, 

Cooper Institute, 

City Librar}', 

Y. M. C. A., 4th ave., cor. 2;kl, 
" 161 5th ave., 
" cor. 3d av. & 122d st. 
" " 285 Hudson st., 
" 69 Ludlow St., 
" 97 Wooster St., 

Mercantile Library. 

Peoria, III. 

Mercantile Library. 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

Mercantile Library, 
Philadelphia Library, 
Y. M. C. A., 
Franklin Institute. 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Mercantile Library, 
Y. M. C. A. 

Portland, Me. 
Y. M. C. A. 

Providence, R. I. 

Providence Public Library, 
Athenaeum. 



Richmond, Va. 

State Library. 

Rochester, N. Y. 
Athenagum. 

Sacramento, Cal. 
State Library. 

St. Louts, Mo. 

Mercantile Library, 
Public School Library. 

St. Paul, Minx. 

Library Association. 

Sax Fraxcisco, Cal. 
Free Library, 
Mercantile Library, 
Mechanics' Institute Library, 
Y. M. C. A. 

Springfield, Mass. 
City Library. 

Syracuse, N. Y. 
Y. M. C. A. 

Toledo, O. 

Public Library. 

Washington, D. C. 

Library of Congress, 
Y. M. C. A 

Wilmington, Del. 

Wilmington Ins 6c Pub Library. 

Wokcestf.k, Mass, 

Free Public Library. 



The Hotel Brunswick, 

Situated on Boylston and 

^LAI^BNDON STP^BBTS, IN THE BAGI^ BAY DISTI^IGT. 

«■ BOSTON, fflASS. » 




This is one of the finest hotel stru(5lures in the world, and its surroun- 
dings include many of the most noted strudlures in 
New England, including 

Trinity (Phii^lips Brooks' Church), New Oi.d South, Institute oe 

TechnoivOGy, Chauncey HA1.1. Scnooiv, Boston Society oe 

NATuRAi, History, Harvard Medicai, Schooi., 

Public Library and Boston Art Club. 

x)artmouth, Huntington Avenue, Beacon Street, and all Back Bay Cars pass every three minutes, 
a facility afforded by no other hotel. 



BARNES & DUNKLEE, Proprietors. 






HoTEi^ Victoria. 

Dartmoutli Street, Corner Newbury. 
EUROPEAN PLAN. 

This new and elegantly appointed Hotel is now open for transient or permanent guests. The 
Restaurant is of the highest order. Back Bay Cars marked Veudome p.iss the door. 



CHAS. A. GLEASON, Manager. 



BARNES & DUNKLEE, Proprietors. 



STEAMBRS. 



OCEAK LINES. 

Allan Line — To Liverpool. 
Austrian, 
Caspian, 
Circassian, 
Hibernian, 
Nova Scotian, 
Parisian, 
Persian, 
Peruvian, 
Polynesian, 
Prussian, 
Sardinian, 
Sarmatian, 
Siberian, 
Waldensian. 

Anchgii Line — To Glasgow and Liver- 
2)ool. 
Anchoria, 
Circassia, 
Cit}^ of Rome, 
Devonia, 
Furnessia, 
Etl)iopia. 

Alexandke's Line — iV". Y. to Havana. 

(N. y., Havana and Mexican S. S. Line. 

F Alexandre & Sons.) 

Alpes, 

City of Alexandria, 

Manhattan. 

Atlas Line — Neic York to Central and 
South America. 
^Etna, 
Ailsa. 



Alene, 

Alps, 

Alvena, 

Andes, 

Antillas, 

Atbos, 

Avila. 

Bordeaux Line — N. Y. tc Bordeaux. 

Chateau Lafite, 
Chateau Leoville, 
Chateau Margaux, 
Chateau Yquem. 

Booth S. S. Co. — New York to Brazil. 

Ambrose, 
Anselm, 
Augustine, 
Lanfranc. 

CuNAiiD Line — To Liverpool, 

Aurania, 

Bothnia, 

Catalonia, 

Cephalonia, 

Etruria, 

Gallia, 

Pavonia, 

Scythia, 

Servia, 

Umbria. 

Atlantic and West India Line- 
Boston to West Indies. 
Barracanta, 
Momca. 



ROLLER DETACHABLE 

CHAIN BELTING 

-S Designed for # 

Elevators, Conveyors, 
Drive Belts, 

For Handling- 
Grain, Seeds, Coal, Ores, Phosphates, 
Sawdust, Clay, Tan Bark, &c. 




CHAIN ELEVATORS WILL NOT SLIP OR CLOG. 



Send for lUtisb'ated Catalogue 



Roller Chain Belting Co. 

COLUMBUS, O., U.S.A. 



X THE LEGG X 

Coal Mining Machine 

The Greatest Labor-Saving Invention of the Age. 




WILL undercut from 
800 to 1,000 square 
feet of floor per day 
of ten hours, with two 
iTien. 



Position of Machine at Work. 



Also Manufacture the 



Legg Rotary Power Coal Drills, 

Capable of drilling a hole IK in. to 2 in. in diameter to a depth of 6 ft. in 4 minutes. 
MachiDCS fiirnlslied subject to sale after having worked 011 b sis of estimate. 

• Mtinviftiotured and. Sold, by • 

The LeCHNER HQaNUEACTURING do. 

Correspondtnce Solicited. X COLUMBUS, OHIO, U.S. A. 



STEAMERS. 


American Link— Philadelphia to Liver- 


Lessing, 


pool. 


Moravia, 


British King, 


Rhaetia, 


British Prince, 


Rugia, 


British Princess, 


Suevia, 


Illinois, 


Westphalia, 


Indiana, 


Wieland. 


Lord Clive, 




Lord Gaugh, 


Inman Line— To Liverpool, 


Ohio. 


City of Berlin, 


Fabre Line — To Genoa, Marseilles and 

Naples. 
Alesia, 


City of Chester, 
City of Chicago, 


City of Montreal, 


Britannia, 


City of Richmond. 


Burgundia, 

Neustria, 

Scotia, 


Italian Line — New York to Marseilles^ 
Naples and Palermo. 


Gergovia. 
French Line — To Hawe. 


(Florio-Rubattino Line.) 
Indipendente, 
Washington, 


(Compagnie Generale Transatlantique.) 


Vincenzo Florio, 


Amerique, 


Archimede, 


Canada, 


Gottardo. 


France, 




La Bretagne, 


Monarch Line — New York to London, 


La Gascogne, 


Assyrian Monarch, 


Labrador, 


Egyptian Monarch, 


La Bourgogne, 


Grecian Monarch, 


La Champagne, 


Lydian Monarch, 


La Normaudie, 


Persian Monarch. 


Saint Germain, 




Saint Laurent, 


National Line — New York to Liver^ 


GuiON Line — To Liverpool. 
Alaska, 
Arizona, 
Nevada, 
Wisconsin, 
Wyoming. 


pool and London. 
America, 
Canada, 
Denmark, 
Egypt, 
England, 
Erin, 


Hamburg-American Line — New York 


France, 


to Hamburg. 


Greece, 


Bohemia, 


Helvetia, 


Frisia, 


Holland, 


Gellert, 


Italy, 


H ammonia, 


Spain. 



A UTOM ATic ^ S team ^ H eater. 




BURNS EITHER 



Hard or Soft Coal. 



1^ ALWAYS 



GIVES 



SATISFACTION. 



->^ Perfect ^ 
m Low Presstire-^ 



% Steam Heating 
•: FOR :• 

DWELLINGS, 

BANKS, 
PUBLIC :• 

•: BUILDINGS 
D AND STORES. 



Duplex Steam Heater Co. 



&GENTS Wanted Everywhere. Send for New Illustrated Qa-talogue. 



p 



STEAMERS. 



North German Lloyd— 2b Bremen. 

Aller, 

America, 

Eider, 

Elbe, 

Ems, 

Fulcla, 

Habsburg, 

Leipzig, 

Main, 

Neckar, 

Oder, 

Ehein, 

Saale, 

Salier, 

Werra, 

Weser. 

Red Star Line — To Antwerp. 
Belgenland, 
Noordland, 
Pennland, 
Rhynland, 
"Waesland, 
Westernland. 

Pacific Mait^ S. S. Co. — San Francisco 
to Yokohama and Hongkong. 
City of New York, 
City of Peking, 
San Pablo, 
City of Sydney, 
City of Rio de Janeiro. 

Royal Mail Line — To Rotterdam and 
Amsterdam, 
Edam, 
Leerdam, 
P. Caland, 
Sohiedam, 
W. A. Scholten, 
Laandam. 

State Line — To Glasgow and Belfast. 
State of Alabama, 
State of Georgia, 



State of Indiana, 
State of Nebraska, 
State of Nevada, 
State of Pennsylvania. 

Thingvalla Line — To Copenhagen. 
Geiser, 
Hekla, 
Island, 
Thingvalla. 

White Star Line— 7(9 Liverpool. 
Adriatic, 
Baltic, 
Britannic, 
Celtic, 
Germanic, 
Republic. 

Ward's Line— Tc? Cuba. 
(N. Y. and Cuba Mail S. S. Co.— James 
E. Ward *fc Co.) 

Cienfuengos, 

Niagara, 

Santiago, 

Saratoga. 

Red "D" Line— iV^. Y. to West Indies. 
Caracas, 
Philadelphia, 
Valencia. 

Liyerpool, Brazil & River Plate 
Steam Navigation Co. 
Biela, 
Buffon, 
Cuvier, 
Galileo, 
Hevelius, 
Leibnitz, 
Maskelyne, 
Orion, 
Pleiades, 
Sirius. 

U. S. and Brazil Mail S. S. Co. 
Advance, 
Finance. 



Est£iblishieci 1840. 



Incorporfited 1885. 



BAGNALL& LOUD BLOCK CO, 



.•> BOSTON, MASS. :•> 



The Largest and Most Reliable Manufacturers of 

B locks 





IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Our Specialties are: 

Improved Self-Adjusting Five-Roll 
Roller Bush Blocks. 

Improved Self-Lubricating Metaline 
Bush Blocks. 

Improved Wrought Iron Blocks, with 

'Roiled Edges. 
Improved Self-Locking Link Snatch 

Blocks. 
Improved Diaphragm Pumps, for ves- 
sel and contractor's use, being non- 
chokeable and will pump sand or 
gravel without injury to the pump. 



Improved Self-Lock- 
ing Link Snatch 
Block. 





Improved Harcourt 
Patent IJlock. 



Improved Self-Adjusting five-roll Roller Bush Sheave. 

Gives Twice the Purchase of an Iron Bashed Sheave. 



Ask your dealer for the 

STAR BRAND 

Sol f - Atlj list iug 

Five-Roll Eoller Bnsli Blocks. 





IllustratedCatalogue on Application. 
Solid Roll, with shoulder. Cage to hold the rolls. 

New York Branch, 33 South Street 



STEAMERS. 



Red Cross Line — New York to Brazil 
Amazonense, 
Cearense, 
Lisbonense, 
Manauense 
Maranhense, 
Paraense, 
Portuense, 
Sobralense, 
Therisina. 

Southern Pacific Co. — New Orleans 
to Havana, Vera Cruz, &c. 

Aranzas, 
Chalmette, 
Eureka, 
Hutchinson, 
I. C. Harris. 

N. O. to Vera- Cruz via Gajlveston. 
Harian. 

New Orleans to Costa Rica, &c. 
Foxliall, 
Maria P. 

Oteri Pioneer Line — New Orleans to 
points in Central America. 

E. B. Ward, Jr., 
Professor Morse, 
S. Oteri. 

French Commercial Line — New Or- 
leans to Ila'cre, France. 
Marseilles. 

New Orleans and Central Amer- 
ican S. S. Co. 

Lucy P. Miller. 

West India and Pacific S. S. Co. — 
New Orleans to Liverpool. 
Floridian, 
Haytain, 
Texas. 



N. O. & Belize Royal Mail S. S. Co. 
City of Dallas, 
Kate Carroll, 
Wanderer. 

Occidental and Oriental S. S. Co. 

San Francisco to China and Japan. 
Belgic, 
Oaelic, 
Oceanic, 

T.\MPA, FlA., to HAVAlfA. 

Mascotte. 

Miller & Henderson Gulf S. S. 
Lines — Neic' Orleans to Jamaica, Cen- 
tral America, &c. 

Alabama, 

Blanche Henderson, 

Capt. Miller, 

C. J. Cochran, 

Lizzie Henderson, 

Lucy P. Miller. 

Clyde's New York, Santo Domingo 
Hayti and Turk's Island Line 
Steamers. 

Geo. W. Clyde. 

Ozama. 

COASTWISE LINES. 

Merchants' and Miners' Trans. Co. 
Between Boston, Providence, Baltimore 
and Savannah. 

Allegheny, 

Chatham, 

Decatur H. Miller, 

Geo. Appold, 

Wm. Crane, 

Wm. Lawrence. 

Boston and Savannah S. S. Co. — 
Boston to Savannah. 

City of Macon, 
Gate City. 




RON & STEEL CO 

^"o o o'o o <i o o o o o cj o o o c J:> o 6 o o cs o c> o o o o o S o o i o o o o o o o o o o 'S o o o o 





BIRMINGHAM, ALA. 



# Ws' •^•^^••®- -^ # 



HIGH CLASS 

OO-OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 



Foundry-^- 

oooooooooocooooooooooococoocoooo 



AND 



-^-JVlill Irons, 

oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 



STEAMERS. 



Boston and Bangor S. S. Co. — Boston 
to Bangor and Maine Resorts. 

Cambridge, 
Henry Morrison, 
Katahdin, 
Mount Desert, 
Penobscot, 
Rockland. 

International S. S. Co. — Boston to 
St. Johns, N. B. 

Cumberland, 
State of Maine. 

Eennebec Steamboat Co. — Boston to 
Augusta. 
Star of the East. 

I^OVA Scotia S. S. Co.— Boston to 
Eastern Ports. 
Dominion, 
Secret, 
Empress. 

Boston, Halifax & Prince Edward 
Island S. S. li\^^— Boston to Ealifa^. 

Carroll, 

Merrimack, 

"Worcester. 

3It. Desert Line — From Boston. 
City of Richmond, 
Lewiston. 

Portland Steam Packet Co.— Boston 
and Portland. 

John Brooks, 
Tremont. 

^Ew York and Wilmington S. S. Co. 
New York to Wilmington, N". C. 
Benefactor, 
Regulator. 



Old Dominion S. S. Co. — Ifew York to 
Norfolk, Old Point, Newport News and 
Richmond. 

Breakwater, 

Guyandotte, 

Manhattan, 

Old Dominion, 

Richmond, 

Roanoke, 

Seneca, 

"Wyanoke. 

New York and Charleston S. S. Co. 
New York to Charleston, S. C 
City of Atlanta, 
City of Columbia. 

Empreza Insulana Navagacao, Lis- 
bon — Madeira, Azores to Boston. 
S. S. Benguella. 

Clyde Lines — New York to Charleston, 
Florida, Wilmington ; Philadelphia to 
Richmond, Norfolk and Charleston. 

Ashland, 

Benefactor, 

Cherokee, 

City of Atlanta, 

City of Columbia, 

Delaware, 

Equator. 

Pioneer, 

Regulator, 

Seminole, 

Virginia, 

Wyoming, 

Yemassee. 

OcKAN S, S. Co. — Neio York and Phila- 
delphia to Savannah. 

Chattahoochee, 

City of Augusta, 

City of Savannah, 

Dessoug, 

Juniata, 

Nacoochee, 

Tallahassee. 



ESTABLISHED 1859. 



A COMPLETE RECORD 



-O^ THIE- 



Business and Industrial Interests 

of the UNITED STATES 

Is Given Every Week in 

THE : BOSTON 

Commercial Bullleti, 



-^vvTITH- 



Hints and Points to Make Money 

MERCHANDISE, MINES AND MACHINERY; 

MILLS, MANUFACTURING AND METALS; 
PRODUCE AND PROVISIONS; 

WOOL, HIDES AND LEATHER; 
BOOTS AND SHOES; 

DRY GOODS AND GROCERIES 

MOHEY MATTERS IH HEW YORK AND BOSTON, 

Manufacturing News of the United States, 

New Mills, Manufactories and Machine Shops> 
Inventions and Improvements. 

Special ^Irticles by Skilled ^Irtisans. 
Price, Four Dollars a Year. Send for Sample. 

CURTIS GUILD & CO. 

BOSTON, - - - - IvIASS. 



STEAMERS. 



ilED Cross lii^K—New York to Halifax 
and St. John, JV. F. 
Miranda, 
Portia. 

Mallory S. S. Lines— r<? Texas, Flor- 
ida, and Georgia. 
Alamo, 
Carondelet, 
City of San Antonio, 
Colorado, 
Comal, 
Lampasas, 
Rio Grande, 
San Marcos, 
State of Texas. 

Obomwell Line— iV<?t/7 York to JS'ew 
Orleans. 
Hudson, 

Knickerbocker, 
Louisiana, 
Xew Orleans. 

Oregon Railway and Navigation 

Qo.—Sa7i Francisco, California, and 
Portland, Oregon. 

Columbia. 

Oregon, 

State of California. 

Pacific Coast S. S. Co.— From San 
Francisco to points on Pacific Coast. 
Ancon, 
Eureka, 
Idaho, 

Los Angeles, 
Orizaba, 
Santa Rosa, 
Yaquina, 

Charleston and Florida S. S. Co. 
Jacksonmlle and Clmrleston. 
City of Palatka. 

Sea Island Route — Savannah to 
Brunswick, Fernandina, &c. 
St. Nicholas. 



INLAND LINES. 
New York. 

Bristol— i^a/; River Line. 
Pilgrim, " " 

Old Colony— To Newport, R. 2. 
Providence, " «' 

'^UTraga.nsett—Stonington Line. 
Stonington, " <« 

Massachusetts— To Providence, 
Rhode Island, '< j^^ f 

City of Boston— r<? JVew London, 
City of Lawrence, « Conn. 

City of New York, » " 

City of "Worcester, " « 

City of Troy— To Troy. 
Saratoga, " 

Dean Richmond— r^ Albany. 
Drew, «' 

Albany— D«y Line to Albany. 
Daniel Drew, " " 

City of Kingston— 2;> Rondout, 
James W. Baldwin, '' fS;c. 

Baltimore. 

Carolina— 0^^ Bay Line to Old 

Point and JVorfolk. 
Florida, " « 

Virginia, '< *« 

Baltimore— i?. d Y. R. Line to 
Richmond ( West Pt.) 
Danville, " « 

Avaloa— r(> points on Chesapeake 
Bay and Tributaries. 
Enoch Pratt, '- 
Ida, «' u 

Joppa— Tf^ 2^^nts on CUsapeake 
Bay and Tributaries. 
S. J. Pcnl/, " « 

IVEason Ti. Wcenis, «' 

Theodore Weems, " 

Westmoreland, " " 

Corsica, " « 

Emma A. Ford, « 

Richmond, Ya. 

Ariel— To Norfolk and Old Point. 



THE NEW YORK 

• the • 

LEADING BUSINESS PAPER 

■ of the " 
UNITED STATES. 

INDEPENDENT^ND_RELIABLL. 



Merchants in all bra7iches of trade will find the market reports of 
the Commercial Bulletin the latest, the most tnistworthy , and the 
Tnost valuable of any issued. 

To buy with advantage in any market, every jobber and every 
retailer should be well informed of the condition of the New York 
tnarkcis. 

The Bulletin has an established reputation of 25 years standing as an 
aiitliority upon markets and business affairs, and buyers of Dry Goods, Gro- 
ceries, Breadstuffs, Provisions, Produce, Cotton, Wool and 
all Staple Products Avill invariably consult its cohmms to tlieir advantage 
before purchasing. 

No other journal is at such effort or expense in furnisliing late and trust- 
worthy business news, aul no other journal endeavors to more faithfully report 
prices and markets in the interests Of its subscribers. Many trade 
papers are run chiefly, if not entirely, in the interests of one or more large distrib- 
utors, and are consequently used by such parties to their own advantage. The 
Bulletin is absolutely independent and free of all such entanglements. 

The Bulletin is mailed by the evening mails, and reaches its destinatioiL 
several hours in advance of any New York morning papers. 

Sample copies sent free, one week, on application. 

Subscription Price, $12. OO one year. 

6.50 Vz 

aactti l^ork Bailtj BuUetin ^ssocmtlont 

32 BROADWAY, NEW YORK CITY. 

NOTICE. 

As an advertising medivm it has proved itself to be 07ie (if not the best) of the most valuable 
rf all mediums. It is a welcome vis'tor to all merchants, consequently of greater value to the 
advertiser. It reaches m.ore biisinees centres, and has a circulation far in (xcess of any business 
paper in the United States. 

j~f /J '7^77' O \ Special Notices, 2^c. per line. Agate vicasurement. 

■t^^ J- -l^^ '\ordiiiary, 20c. " 

VEARLV KATES ON AF'F'LICATION. 



8TEAMER8. 



Washington, D. C. 

Lady of the Lake— 1(9 Norfolk,&c. 
George Leary, " " 

Jacksonville, Fla. 

Fred'k DeBarry— >6'^. John's River 

H. T. Baya, '' - Sirs. 

City of Jacksonville, " " 

Magnolia, " *< 

v^^rglades, " " 

liosa, " '• 

Anita, ^< « 

Pastime, " « 

Sylvan Glen, " " 

Water Lily, « « 

H. B. Plant, « « 



Cedar Key, Fla. 

Governor ^a^Wovd^Gulf 8. B. Go. 

Mobile, Ala. 

Annie— i^<?r^^s. on Mobile Bay^&c. 
Lotus, No. 2, " " " 

W. H. Gardner, " « 

New Orleans. 

Alvin— For points on Red River 

and Gulf Coast. 
Assumption, •* « 

Danube, " " 

Jewell, " « 

Keokuk, " «< 

Lura— i^<?r j)oints on Red River 

and Gulf Coast. 
Neptune, " " 

Clinton — For poinds on Upper 

Gulf Coast. 
Edward J. Gay, " " 

John II. Winmii— Landings on 

Ouachita and Black Rivera. 
E. W. Fuller— i^or Bayou La- 
four die. 
Josic AV.— /;>/• Bayou. <( Macon and 

Tensdx. 
^ewlhvrin— For Bayou Tcche, ct-c. 



'Purgoud—For Vickshurg. 

Paris C. Brown— i^or Cincinnati. 

Golden Rule, " 

Memphis, Tenn. 

Kate Adams — For Vickshurg. 
Will S. Hays, 

Andy Baum— i^'or Cincinnati. 
James W. Gaff, " 

Cons. Miller, " 

Granite State, " 

Buckeye State, " 

Ohio, « 

Nashville, Tenn. 

J. P. Drouillard, 
B. S. Phea, 
W. H. Cherry. 

Evansville, Ixd. 
Clyde, 

W. T. Nisbet, 
John Gilbert, 
Silver Cloud, 
W. A. Johnson. 

Natchez, Miss. 

Carneal Goldman— i^^r YicksVrg. 

Prince— F(>r Bayou Suva. 

T P. Leathers— F«9;' A". Orleam. 



Detroit, Mich. 

City of Detroit, 
City of Cleveland, 
City of Mackinac, 
City of Alpena. 
Northwest. 

Idlewild, 
Northwest, 



1 Det. <fe Cleve- 

I land Steam 

\ Nav. Vo.for 

I ;>< 

I Erie 6: 

J Huron. 

1 Star Line of 

J> Stmrx. for points 



porifion Lake 
Lake 



Evening Star. J on tU Lakes. 

BisAiARK, Dakota. 
Helena, "] 

Benton, Benton Trans. 

Batchelor, } Co. for jwints on 
Rosebud, Missouri River. 

Judith. j 



GEO. F. BLAKE MF'G CO. 



Builders of" 



pingle aqd Duple]( Jumping Macjinei'if 




Send for Zllizstrctted CatalogzLe, 

BOSTON, 44 Wasliington St. iNEW YORK, 95 & 9] Liberty Si. 

Knowles • Steam • Pump • Works, 

• BUILDERS OF • 

# PUCIDPING fflACtilNERY. ^ 





BOSTON, 44 Washington Street. NEW YORK, 93 Liberty Street. 

SEND FOR CATALOGUE. 



8TEAMER8. 



St. Louis, Mo. 

Mary MortOD — For Upper Misds- 
Sidney, " " sippi- 

Josephine, " " 

Wyoming — For Kansas City, 

Leamnworth, &c. 
G-eu. Meade — For Landings on 

Missouri River. 
New Hudson — For Ohio, Cumber- 
land and Tennessee Rivers. 
Clyde, 

Henry A. Tyler — For Tenn. Riv. 

Calhoun — For Illinois River. 

City of New Orleans, 

City of Natchez, 

City of Baton Rouge, 

City of St. Louis, 
Arkansas City, 
E. G. Elliott. 

Gem City— i^o?- St. Paul, dc. 
War Eagle, " « 

St. Paul, " '< 

Centennial— i^r 8t. Paul, <&c. 
White Eagle, *' « " 

New Haven, Conn. 

Continental— i^b?- Mw York. 
Elm City, " <« 

New Haven, " « 



Anchor 
Line for 
I New 
Orleans. 



CixcrNNATr, Ohio. 

Bosiona— For pts. on Ohio Rivir. 

Big ^-'andj^ " « 

Telegraph, " " 

Bonanza, " " 

St. Lawrence, '* « 

Ingomar, " « 

Fleetwood— i^'or Louisville. 
City of Madison " 
Ohio— T^o;- Memphis. 

Milwaukee, Wis. 

Champlaiu— F<>r points on Lake 
Lawrence, " « Michigan. 

Toledo, Ohio. 

Chief Justice Waite— Fo>- Put- 
in-Bay, &c. 
Mascotte— i<br Point Place, dc. 
Saginaw— 7<'<?r Detroit, &c. 

Buffalo, N. Y. 

Nyack, 

India, 

China, 

Japan, 

Winslow, 



Lake Superior 

Transit Co. ^8 

Steamers 

for 



Empire State, [ Erie, Cleveland, 



Badger State, 
Idaho, 

Fountain City, 
St. Louis, 
Arctic. 



Detroit, Port 

Huron, Duluth, 

and other Lake 

Ports. 



THE BALTIMORE 



M anufacturer s' Rucord 

Is the acknowledged exponent and representative of 
Southern progress and development. On this and the 
following page are given a few extracts from newspapers 
and from letters received from subscribers, showing the 
estimation in which the paper is held by those who have 
become familiar with it and are best capable of judging 
of the value of its work: 



This maumlicent industrial paper, which 
has done so much for the Soutli, deserves 
the kindest consideration at the hands of 
the people of the South. It has done more 
than all other newspaper ageacies combin- 
ed to bring to the attention of capitalists 
and emigrants the splendid and various re- 
sources of the Souih. It has made a speci- 
alty of this matter as a labor of love. The 
Manufacturers' Record has a large cir- 
culation over the whole Urion. It is the 
leader of thein iustrial papers of the coun- 
try. It is run u ith ability and enterprise.— 
^ lie Evening Capitol, Atlanta, Ga. 

The Manufacturers' Record, which 
has just entered upon its ninth volume, is a 
paper of which not only its proprietors may 
well be proud, but the city also and the 
South. Its success, from a business point 
of view, has been remarkable, and— an even 
better thing in many respects— it has by en- 
ergy, enterprise and a close adherence to 
sound economic principles, made for itself 
a strongly established reputation and a posi- 
tion in the front rank of the best trade jour- 
nals of the country ; and that its efforts in 
behalf of Southern development have con- 
siderably benefited the growing industries 
of the South is scarcely to be doubted.— 
Jialti7nore American. 

The Manufacturers' Record is ac- 
cepted everywhere as undoubtedly the best 
a^Jthority on Southern affairs. The statis- 
tics and facts furnished and circulated 
among capitalists in the North and West 
are to be relied upon, and have successfully 
drawn help to the South in the development 
of her material resovivcQQ.— Greenville (Ala.) 
Advocate. 

The Manufacturers' Record is a paper 
that is doing more for building up manu- 
factures in the South than any other paper 
has thus far ever done. It has the most cor- 
rect and minute information fromallpoints 
in the South in regard to every manufactur- 
ing interest, and gives from week to week 
a statement of every new industry that 
springs up in the South. The industrial 
progress of the country has its special at- 



tention, and from its columns a better idea 
of the industrial advance of this section 
of the Union can be obtained than from 
any other source.— iVa^c/tesi Miss.) Democrat. 

From F. J. Cridland, British Consul, Mo- 
bile, Ala. : "It gives me much pleasure to 
renew my subscription to your valuable 
:ournal for the present year, for ever since 
I have been a sabscriber it has opened out 
to me a vast amount of accurate informa- 
tion in reference to thesgricultural, manu- 
facturing and the great mineral resources 
of the South, with a variety of other valua- 
ble reports, which have afforded me the 
means of giving to my government a truth- 
ful account of the present condition of the 
district, in reference to which I am request- 
ed to report to them yearly. Every one 
who feels an interest in the advancement of 
the Southern States must read your journal 
with pleasure, and those who are not so for- 
tunate as to see it do not know what an im- 
mense amount of information they are de- 
prived of yearly in consequence." 

From >S'^. Vlair Coal Co., Trout Creek, St. 
Clair Co., Ala.: "The last issue of your 
paper failed to reach us. We value it too 
highly to lose even one number, and will be 
glad if you will supply the deficiency. The 
Manufacturers' Record is certainly in- 
valuable to persons either directly or indi- 
rectly interested in any industrial entei'- 
prise, or even generally interested in the 
material development of the country. The 
variety and correctness of its information 
is wonderful, and it contains much to be ob- 
tained from no other source. We consider 
the amount paid for a years subscription 
the best investment we have made. The 
Manufacturers' Record is doing a great 
work for the South, and deserves the confi- 
dence and support of all enterprising citi- 
zens." 

From Eugene Morehead & Co., Bankers, 
Durham, N. C. : " We enclose our third an- 
nual subscription. Your laudable object 
and your marked success should place on 
your subscription list the name of every 
progressive business firm in the South." 



From Akron Iron Co., Akron, Ohio : " We 
consider the Manufacturers' Record the 
■best paper of its kind that there is in the country. 
It is a very readable and interesting' paper, 
and from it we f^et a large amount of valu- 
able information. As ati exponent of the 
progress that is being made by the ' New 
South,' it is certainly doing the subject /"w^/ 
and entire justice.''^ 

From Tf. Duke. Sons d- Co., Manufacturers 
■of Smoking Tobacco and Cigarettes, Dur- 
ham, N. C. : "Allow us to congraulate you 
upon the great success of the Manufac- 
turers' Record. As an exponent of South- 
•em industries especially we have never 
seen its equal, and every manufacturer of 
the Sjuth should be numbered amcng its 
subscribers. As we are one of the largest 
advertisers in the country, we are, of course, 
the recipients of great quantities of papers, 
pamphlets, etc. ; yet we give precedence to 
the Manufacturers' Record for matters 
of Interest and information," 

From F. C. & E. H. Bvffum, Bankers, 
Brokers and Real Estate Dealers, Stanton, 
Fla, : '' We desire to thank you for the very 
valuable matter relative to the increase of 
Southern progress which you have so freely 
furnished us. We do not know of any 
other source from which we could have 
gained information so reliable and abund- 
ant. We look upon the Manufacturers' 
Record as the most valuable paper of its 
Jdnd published. It has been and is of great 
worth to us m our business, and we should 
not now feel that we could afford to do with- 
out it. It deserves liberal support from ail 
who are interested in the advancement of 
the South." 

From Adams Cotton Mills, Montgomery, 
Ala. : "It gives us pleasure to express our 
appreciation of your valuable journal. The 
information it contains as to the general in- 
dustries of our growing country, and its 
advertising columns, filled with every want 
of a manufacturer, showing ui> all the latest 
improvements in machinery, &c., rendtrs it 
indispensable to us. We believe you have 
done more to encourage manufacturing m 
the South than all other journals combined. 
The Soath owes you a debt for your noble 
efforts, and we trust you will be richly re- 
warded by an appreciative public." 

The Southern Lumberman, of Nashville, 
Tenn., says : *' The Baltimore INIanufac- 
TURERS' Record has spent more money, 
time and energy than pernaps anj-- other 
paper in America trying to get at the exact 
facts m regard to Southern industrial pro- 
gress." 

From Loomis, Hart & Co., Manufacturers 
and Dealers in Lumt)er and Furniture, «&c., 
Chattanooga, 'ienn. ; "We taue no paper 
that furnishes more valuable information 
in regard to the manufacturing interests of 
the Southern States tnan can be found iu 



your columns, and w "^ consider it one of the 
best and most reliable journals now laboring 
to bring the great advantages of the South 
to the notice of those seeking business loca- 
tions or homes in o::e of the most desirable 
sectior.s of the United States." 

From L. II. Lee & Bra., General Agents 
Cham: ion Binders, Reapers and Mowers, 
Baltimore : "The Manufaccrei.s' Record 
wo have taken from its first issue. It is the 
only paper that we read through from first 
to last page, ad\"ertisemcnts and all. Its 
devotion to the development of manufac- 
turing interests and the general good of the 
Sout'i is only equalled by the ability of its 
management and editorials. Its sound logi- 
cal oppcsition to ' free trade ' is worthy of 
most hearty commendation from every 
manufacturer, mechanic, merchant and 
farmer of the South, as well as from any 
American citizen loving his own country 
best. We are surprised to note the large 
and varied amount of information in each 
issue re~ar hng the progress of the South 
as to manufacturing enterprises." 

From Millburn Gin & Machine Co., Mem- 
phis, Tenn. : " We take great pleasure in 
fi-ankly saying that your paper has, we 
think, done more for the development of 
manufacturing interests in the South than 
any paper published in the entire section. 
The general information which you give to 
your subscribers we consider of the highest 
value to all mechanics and manufacturers. 
Your paper always has a hearty welcome in 
our office, and it is our purpose to not only 
continue as a subscriber, but also an adver- 
tiser. It pays well.''' 

From Sakm Stone & Lime Co., Louisville, 
Ky.: " It gives us pleasure to bear witness to 
the high value we place upon your paper in 
the great amount of detailed information 
given from week to week as to manufactur- 
ing and industrial interests in the Southern 
States. You certainly are doing a mighty 
work in advancing the material interests of 
this section of the coimtry. In your good 
work we wish you abundant success." 

From W.J. Pollard, Proprietor of Atwood 
Gin Factory, Kosciusko, Miss. : "You are 
doing a noble work in calling the attention 
of moneyed men to the South, where capi- 
tal IS so much needed. If we had more 
papers like yours, and less political claptrap 
Stuff, It would be a Godsend to both sections. 
Your paper is doing a deal of good in bring- 
ing the two sections into close business and 
friendly relations, and aiding the develop- 
ment of the resources of the South." 

From Thomas McSpetden, Supt. Emily 
Mining Co., Emily, P. O., Va. : " To say 
that 1 consider your paper a valuable one 
would be putting it very light ; for, m con- 
sideration of what it IS doing for the New 
Sou 111, Its worth cannot be too highly e.x- 
toiied." 



THE business of the type founder and electrotyper is one of cousideriible 
mystery to many, and a source of much interest. Prominent among those 
engaged in this business is the well-known house of John Ryan «& Co.^ 
located at the southwest corner of South and German streets, Baltimore, Md. 
Til is house was founded by the above firm 32 years ago upon a scale, in compari- 
son with the present facilities and proportions, exceedingly small and contracted. 
Integrity and honor in all business transactions was placed at the foundation as 
the corner-stone of the structure, and the trade was increased and reared through 
this commendable medium. The foundry for the manufacture of type is 70x200 
feet in dimensions, and well equipped with the many improved appliances for the 
proper conduct of the business. They manufacture type of all kinds, and their 
make and faces are the equal of any produced. The firm carry a stock of 
printers' supplies, such as type, cases, rule*, galleys, furniture, sticks, presses, 
paper cutters, etc., amounting to about $30,000. They are also general electro- 
typers, and execute work of a most excellent character in this department. The 
annual business will reach about $100,000, and extends throughout Maryland, 
Pennsylvania, and the Southern and Western States. A large catalogue is mailed 
on application, giving the many styles of type and border produced by the firm 



LAND AND LIVE STOCK COMMISSION MERCHANT. 

WR. STUART, Land Agent, Live Stock Commission Merchant, and 
Importer of Jersey Cattle, G2 Caroudelet street. New Orleans, La. 
■ Has for sale timber, mineral and farming lands in large tracts; farms, 
ranches, etc., in all Southern States; haciendas, ranches, timber and mineral lands 
in Mexico; also receives and sells on commission all kinds of live stock, and 
handles stock of all kinds. W. H. Howcott. 



ELIAS EDMONDS, 
ATTORNEY AND COUNSELOR AT LAW, 

San Antonio, Texas. 
Practices in all the State and Federal Courts. — 



Price 25 Cents, $3.00 a Year. 



SCRIBNERS 
M AC AZ I ME 



smm^^mm^^^mmmm*>»^;m>^^^tm^m 





'4 









PUBLISHED nONTHLY 
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS 

Sample Copy 25 Cents 

ADDRESS 

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, Publishers, 
743 & 745 Broadway, New York. 



"How TO KEEP BOILERS CLEAN" 

• A:ND rilEVENT . 

EXPLOSION ® AND ® CORROSION, 

• AS WELL AS • 

Scaling, Foaming and Burning, 

• BY THE • 

HoTCHKiss Boiler Cleaner. 



Removes 

Lime, 

Magnesia, Oil, 

Mud, Salt, 

Iron, 

All Impurities 

In River, 
Pond, Spring, 

Lake, Well, City 
or 



^ Mine Water. 



Patented 1875, 1877, 1883. Price $75. 

STRICTLY A MECHANICAL DEVICE 

(NO COMPOUND.) 
SIMPLE. INEXPENSIVE AND DURABLE. 

Description. — The Funnel constantly skims the surface water of all impurities thrown to the- 
surface by ebullition, and conducts them to the Reservoir, where they all settle, the purified water 
continuously returning in tl-.e direction of the arrows to the Boiler. This operation never ceases so- 
long as the steam is up, and a clean boiler is insured on opening day. 




Brooklyn, E.D., December 15, 1886. 

I. F. HoTCHKiss, Esq., New York. 

Dear Sir: We have been troubled for some years by a muddy deposit in boilers 
that \va> comparatively easy to wash from body of boilers, but was gradually baked fast 
to a hard scale on the outside of the tubes, so that it was necessary to scrape them as "well 
as we could once a year. After scrapins? the boilers your clean'.rs were put on and have 
^ven excellent saMsfact'on and the sixty boilers ha^-ing- cleaners on, after a run of from, 
six to eight months, are as clean as new boilers. Yours truly, 

Havemeyers «& Elder. 

" HOW TO KEEP BOILERS CLEAN " . 

Is the title of an eighty-eight-page book, which will be sent free to any address, by 

I. F. HOTCHKISS, 86 John Street, New York. 





I r _ ^ „- I I iiiiHliwiii(ii*Miiiii 



EW YORK,U.S.A^ i 



Tg!!if!Bll!li!^!fa!ii^ 







Sergeant's 'TRIUMPH' Rock Drill 

IS MORE SIMPLE IN CONSTRUCTION. 
MORE EFFECTIVE. IN OPERATION. AND 

RKQUIRKS LESS RKFAIR 

T/iaft the Best-Kno7ii)i Rock Drills in the Market. 

Tj3^ ARE Prepared to ^rovk the ^bove Statement. 

AGENTS FOR THE NORWALK AIR COMPRESSOR. 

Correspondence Solicited and Estimates Furnished for all kinds of 

Machinery required in 



■MiiiinL Qnarryliig or Contract Worl[.- 



Address, SERGEANT DRILL CO. 

16 Dey Street, New Yorlc. 



NOVELTY WORKS. 



eSiPABLISHBD 1837. 



JAMES MURRAY & SON, 

^\/J ^^^ i O i^t^ a.nd j\/j[ ill Wrights^ 

Marine and Stationary Engines and Boilers^ 




MARINE RAILWAYS, &c. 

Phosphate MacMnery, Srusljers, 
Little Giant Poller Mill, 

MIXERS, &.C. 

David's Disintegraters and Bone Mills^ 

Owner of Patents and Sole Builders 

IMPROVED 

^" Clay Tempering Machinery ^ 

STF.AM OR HORSE POWER, 



Ai AGENTS FOR VAN DUZENS STEAM JET PUMPS. ~ 

102, 104, 106 and 108 East York Street, near Li^^ht, Baltimore. 



iKg=" REPAIRING OF ALL KINHS PROMPTLY DONE. 



THE BECKETT & McDOWELL MF'C CO. 

Iron Founders and Machinists. 



Manufacturers of 



^teani Engines and M™g Machinery. 



OFFICE : 

120 Liberty Street, N. Y. 



WORKS ; 

Arlington, N. J. 



We refer to the following parties using our machinery: 

Arminius Copper Company, Tolersville, Va., Hoisting and Crushing Machinery, with capacity 
of joo tons a day. Soutl.crn Pacific Railway Co., Texas, Hoisting Machinery. Portis Cold Mining 
Co., Macon, N. C, 10 Stamp Mill. T. C. Basshor & Co., Baltimore, Md., Hoisting Machinery. J. 
Schlitz Brewing Co., Memphis, Tenn., 6x12 Refrigerating Machine. Piedmont Manganese & Iron 
Ore Co., Piedmont, Va., Hoisting Engine. Vein Mt. Mining Co., Marion, N. C, 10 Stamp Mill. E. 
J. Codd & Co., Baltimore, Md., Engines, Cornish Pumps, &c. Gold Hill Mines Co., Salisbury, N. 
C, 20 Stamp Mill Complete. Haile Gold Mining Co., Lancaster, S. C, Double Cylinder Hoist, 20 
Stamp Mill, Engines and Cornish Pumps. Wythe Lead & Zinc Co., Max Meadows, Va., Cornish 
Rolls, Hartz Jigs, Rittinger Tables Hoover Hill Gold Mining Co., Hoover Hill, N. C, 20 Stamp 
Gold Mill. Barazarts & Castro, Valparaiso, Chili, S. A., Hoisting Machinery, Complete Mining 
Plant and Copper Smelting Furnace aggregating over 100 tons. De La Vergne Refrigerating Machine 
Co., Bank Street, N. Y., 20 Engines. Royal Silver Mines, of Potosi, Bolivia, Limited, 75 tons of 
Machinery. Conception & Anexis Mining Co., Tlalpujahua, Mexico, 20 Stamp Mill and Mining Ma- 
Ci i::ery, aggregating over 150 tons. 



Pioneer Company. 



Organized 1866. 



« INSURE YOUK «• 

3 team goilers 

— <^ Agamst Rxplosion. '^^ — 









ESTABLISHED FOR THE 

©re>g)enitori of (i)team Se)Oifer GgpFox^ionx^, 

X i?r EFFLCIEXT IXSPECTIOX, X 

i^qd to Injure against I o^^ oi^ DaniagB fci} Explo^ioi]. 



J. M. ALIiBN, 

President. 



W. B. PF^ANI^LIN, 

r'/cc- President. 



J. 3. PIEI^GE, 



Secretary. 



DIRECTORS 



J. M. ALLEN, President. 

FRANK W. CHENF.Y, of Cheney Bros., Hart- 
ford and New York. 

RICHARD W. H. JARVIS, Prest. Colt's Pat. 
Fire Arms Manufacturing Co 

-Gen WM. B. FRANKLIN, Vice-President Colt's 
Pat. Fire Arms Manufacturing Co. 

NELSON HULLISTEK, of the State Bank, 
Hartford. 

Hon. H. C. ROBINSON, Atty. at Law, Hartford. 



LUCIUS J. HENDFE, Pres. .Etna Fire Ins. Co. 

CHARLES M. BEACH, of Beach & Co. 

DANIEL PHILLIPS, t.f Adams E.xpress Co. 

THOMAS O. ENDERS, of .Etna Life Ins. Co. 

LEVERETT BRAINARD, of the Case, Lock- 
wood S: Brainard Co. 

NEW rON CASE, of the Case, Lockwood & 
Brainard Co 

CHARLES T. PARRY, of Baldwin Locomotive 
Works, Philadelphia. 



Home Office, 218 Main Street, Hartford, Charter Oak Life Building. 



.-^TrH:K:k^ 



United ptate^ Life Insurance Go. 

>IN THE (©IIPY OR r^EW y01^I^,-<^ 
(ORGANIZED IN 1850.) 

261, 262 & 263 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. 



GEO, H. BURKORD, F^resicient, 
C. P. Fraleic.ii, Sec. A. Wheelwright, Asst. Sec. Wm. T. Standen, Actuary. 



All tlie profits belong to the Policy-holders exclusively. 
All Policies issued by this Company are ixdispuTAble after three years. 
All Death Claims paid without discount as soon as satisfactory proofs 
have been received. 

This Company issues all forms of Insurance^ including Tontine and 
Limited (Non-Forfeiting; Tontine. 

Absolute security, combined with the largest liberality, assures the 
popularity and success of this Company. 



New York and New England Railroad 

The traveling public will consult their comfort by taking 

THB KAVORITB LINK 



-BEIWEEN- 



BOSTON, PHILADELPHIA & WASHINGTON. 

Solid Trains are transfei-red between Harlem River and Jersey City, 
around New York City on the 

Transfer Steamer Maryland. 

The trains run via Penna. Railroad, New York, New Haven & Hartford, and New York & New 

England Railroads, 

F*\j.llma.n Palace Sleeping Cars, 

run between Boston and Washington without change. Connections are made at Philadelphia with 
trains to and from the West, via Pennsylvania Railroad. 
The Convenience of this Line is apparent, as it 

AVOIDS VEXATIOUS TRANSFER 

By Stages through New York City, and no other route between New England and the South affords 

like facilities for comf)rt and despatch. 
Information with reference to these trains can be obtained at Offices, 

2O0 and. 32 2 Waslnington. Street, 
At Depot foot of Summer Street, Boston, or at Penna. R. R. Offices South and West. 

A. C . KENDALL, Gen'l Passenger Agt. W. H. TURNER, Gen'l Superintendent. 

New York & New England Railroad, Boston. 



TTlne Rindirig of thiis^ Boole Avas clone "by 



^ 



% J. F. TAPLDY, ^ 

BOOKBINDER, 

-40, 51 & 53 Lafayette Place, 

X.-ar Sih Street d^ Broadiuay. ^CtW ^OrlC. 



Wliom thie puiblistiers taUie pleasure in comnn.erL- 

ding to ttiose ^vhio ^x-ant vvrorl^ of thie hiighiest 

class, and. at reasonable prices. 



% THE MEDART PATENT # 

Wrought Rim Pulley. 

OVLR 300,000 NOW IN USE. 

The lightest, Strongest, Best Balanced and Cheapest 

IN THE WORLD. 

Shafting, Hangers, Couplings, &c. 
MED/IRT P/ITENT PULLEY CO. 

1206 to 1214 N. Main Street, St. Louis, Mo. 

Stores: 09 to loi W. Second St., Cin. 24 & 26 S. Canal St., Chicago. 




The "DAISY" Pillow Sham Holder 




Sent by mail or express, free, 
on receipt of $1.50. 

Liberal Discount to the Trade. 

HUISAPPLE K CO. 

W. C. ORCUTT, Manager. 

f 795 Broadway, N. Y. 

AGENTS WANTED, 



jj^ TLANTIC QOAST £INE. 

'^ Through Freight and Passenger Route, -t- 



AGENTS AT ALL PRINCIPAL POINTS. 



Eichmond & Petersburg R. R. 
Petersburg Rail Road 
Wilmington (SWeldonR. R.Main Line 



Scotland Neck Branch . . . . 
Wilson & Fayet'le Bch.. 
Albemarle & Raleigh R.R. 
Midland N. Carolina R.R. 
Tarboro Branch 



Wilmington, Cola. & Augusta R. R. 
northeastern R. R. of So. Carolina 

Cheraw & Darlington R. R. 

Cheraw &. Salisbury R. R. 

Central R.R. of S.Carolina 



Richmond to I'etersburg 


Wiles. 




23 


Petersburg to Weldon, N. C... 




64 


Weldon to Wilmington 


162 




Ha'ifax to Scotland Neck 


19 




Wilson to Fayetteville 


74 




Tarboro to Williamston 


33 




Goldsboro to Smithfield 


22 




Rocky Mt. to Tarboro 


17 


327 






Wilmington to Columbia 




192 


Florence to Charleston 




102 


Florence to Cheraw 




40 


Cheraw to Wadesboro 




25 


I.anes to Sumter 




40 


Total Mileagb 




813 



SUMMERTOURS 



o on the o 



^ GREAT * LAKES ^^ 




c via • 



Picturesque IVIackinac. 

Palace Sidev/heel Steamers. Low Rates. 

Tlie Sportsman's Line to tlie Spartsman's Paradise. 

Detroit & Cleveland Steam Navigation Company. 

£. B. WIIITCJMB, G.P.A., DEr/iOfT. MICH. 




J[iilEricanB5iess 0; 

Forwarders Between all the Principal Cities in the 

PJew England, Middle and Western States. 

Exclusive Occupants for the Express Business of 37,000 Miles of liailroad, 
with over 5,000 Agencies. 

MOMY ORDERS! Cheap, Safe and ConYenient. Issued for ANY AMOUNT. 

Payable at 10,000 places, or from the "extreme East to the Pacific Coast" and Canada. 
Receipts Given. Money Refunded if Orders are Lost. Orders lleceived by B^nks. 

RATES : |5, 5 ets. ; flO, 8 cts. ; $20, 10 cts. ; i30, 13 cts. ; |40, 15 cts. ; $50, 20 cts. 
Over $50, Proportionate Rates. Orders also issued payable in Europe, at favorable rates. 

Purchases not exceeding $5 each will be ad- 
vanced by the Company, without charge, pro- 
vided deposit is made with the Agent. 

23§^Orders can be given to Agents or tar 
^Messengers on trains. Orders by Te egraph, 
through the Company's Agent, sender prepaying 
same, will receive prompt attention. Blanks for 
orders, free, on application to Agents. 



Money Transferred by Telegraph 

Between all its important City and 
Village Agencies. 

Low Rates & Prompt Service. 

Payment of Money made, when 
Requested, at Local Addresses. 

Rates : In addition to the cost of Telegraph 

service, for sums of $100 or less, ofie 

per cent, or joc. to ■^i.oo. 

Over $100 to S200, $1.25 
200 to 300, 1.50 
300 to 400, 1.75 
400 to 500, 2.00 

Bates for larger amounts, apply to Agents. 
AMERICAN EXPRESS CO. 

FILLS ORDEllS FOll 

Qoods or Household Supplies, 

To be returned by Express. 

Prompt attention and no extra charge 
for the service. 



MERCHANDISE PARCEL RATES. 

The attention of shippers is respectfu.ly called 
to the following table of approximate rates for 
the carriage of small packages of merchandise. 
These rates are the lowest and highest charges 
m.ide, according to the distance packages are car- 
ried, and apply between over 5,000 places r. ached 
direct by this Company in the United States. 

1 Pound, ... 25 Cents. 

2 Pounds, . 25 Cents to 30 Cents. 

3 Pounds, . 25 Cents to 45 Cents. 

4 Pounds, . 25 Cents to 60 Cents. 

5 Pounds, . 25 Cents to 75 Cents. 
7 Pounds, . 25 Cents to ji. 00. 

By Through Way Billing arrangements the 
above rates also apply to places reached by 
nearly every connecting Express in the U. S. 



SPECIAL RATES for Printed Matter; less than by mail; 
absolute security against loss or damage. 




V*v ©yeeRfy || 



ilezjiATpaper* 



Price $3.00 A Year. 



BALTIMORE, MD. 



Single Copies 10 Cents. 



THE Manufacturers' Record is a weekly paper devoted 
to the manufacturing, mining and railroad interests, 
and to the general development and progress in all 
lines of industry of the Southern States. 

Information about the South. 

The marvelous mineral and timber wealth of the Southern States, their 
unrivalled capaVulities as a manufacturing area, and the astonishing progress they 
are making in developing their natural resources and in utilizing their focilities 
for manufacture, are attracting the attention of the whole woild. The extent of 
these resources and advantages is so fully and carefully set foi th, and the pi ogi ess 
of this development so faithfully chronicled from week to week in the Manu- 
facturers' Record, that it is now accepted everywhere as unquestioned 
authority on Southern affiiirs, and its statistics and statements are drawn upon by 
almost every writer or speaker on any Southern topic. 

Its weekly issues constitute an authentic history of the industrial progress 
of the Southern Slates. It furnishes every week a vast variety of information 
on Southern affairs that can be gained from no other source. It discusses in its 
editorial columns and in its correspondence every t^-pic of Southern interest. 
It presents the resources and the development of the South in all their phases. 
To all who are in any way interested or concerned in the prosperity of the South, 
or who care to keep posted as to the industrial and commercial progress of that 
section, the Manufacturers' Record is indispensable. 

It has a constantly increasing circulation among capitalists and others in the 
North and West, who desire to keep informed as to Southern aflairs. 

Southern Trade. 

The Manufacturers' Record is a paper that has identified itself with the 
development of the Southern States; it is the recognized exponent of the 
South's industrial interests. It has from the beginning made that its special 
field of labor, and in it it has practically no rival; it stands pre-eminent. In 
the South it has widespread influence. It is read and quoted and commended 
in every section of the fourteen Southern States. It numbers among its sub- 
scribers the most prominent houses and the officers of the largest corporations in 
the Southern States; the proprietors of mills and factories in every line of 
manufacture, leading contractors, hardware dealers, the presidents and managers 
of railroads, mining companies, pig-iron furnaces, cotton mills, banks, 
etc. It is not a mere advertising sheet ; it is a pushing, live, enterprising vigorous 
paper. Its matter is fresh, interesting and original. It ditiers from all other in- 
dustrial papers in that it has a specialty — a mission — viz : the advancement of the 
South. It is a paper that is not thrown aside, but is read. Its utterances are con- 
sidered of value, and every issue is looked for with interest by its subscribers. 

In view of the importance of the special field of the Manufacturers' Record 
— the South— and its standing and influence in that field, itoff'ers to manufacturers 
of machinery of all kinds, mill, factory, mine and railroad supplies, hardware, roof- 
ing, builders' material, etc , unequalled advantages as an aid in securing a share of 
the trade of the South, which is assuming such enormous proportions, and which 
must continue to grow indefinitely. 

Sample Copies 7uill be sent free on application. 

MANUFACTURERS' RECORD CO., Publishers, Baltimore, Md. 



FROM THE LAKES TO THE GULF. 

ILLINOIS* Central 

-> RAILROAD. -> 



-4 +++++++++ ++4 +-H-++-++4+- 



©Y^ii^ter G^curx^Ion W\c^et/h fo 

NEW ORLEANS, HOUSTON, 

GALVESTON, AUSTIN, 

And SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS, 

And JACKSONVILLE, FLORIDA, 
Via NEW ORLEANS, 

AT m LOWKST ^ RATKS. 



s 



©HE ^^UB XJ3mrpE^ I^ou^nBr*: 



an Francisco, Cal., 

Via New Orleans and Southern Pacific Railway. 
— ^n6 SNOW^^^— — ^^^ — -HO i^- 

TF^E IliLII^OlS 6EI)T^^Ii l^TIIL^O^D, 

Being the SHORT LINE between Chicago, the Lake Region, the SUMMER RESORTS of Wis- 
consin, Min^iesota and the great Northwest, and 

inTE"^;?;?" oiBXjE.^^3srs 

and the WINTER RESORTS of the charming Gulf Coast, the traveler for pleasure as well as the 
business man will find it to his advantage to avail himself of this route. 

OUR NEW FLORIDA ROUTE, via New Orleans. 

The completion of the Pensacola & Atlantic Ry, from PensaCOla to the Chattahoochee 
River, where connection is made with the Florida Central & Western Ry., together with the 
Pensacola and Ne^r Orleans Divisions of the L. & N. R. R., forms a THROUGH All-Rail Line from 
New Orleans to Jacksonville, Fla., 86 Hiiles Shorter than by any Other route. This line 

has been handsomely equipped with Pullman Buffet Sleepini; Cars of the latest pattern, which run 
through from New Orleanb to Jacksonville daily, in connection with trains of the 

Illinois ©bnti^al FJailf^oad. 

The advantages of this route for Florida will be readily appreciated by the INVALID and intelli- 
gent tourist. With ttirough sleepers from Chicago to New Orleans without change, and throue!' 
sleepers from New Orleans to Jacksonville without change, passing along the charming Gulf Coast 
through Bay St. Louis, Biloxi, Ocean Springs, Mobile, Pensacola and Tallahassee (the Capital cf 
Florida^ with stop-over privileges at New Orle.ins and at anv of the above points, and with rates as 
LOW as by any other route, make this the MOST DESIR.A.BLE LINE for the Florida TouriJt. 

Our TEXAS AND CALIFORNIA LINE, via New Orleans, 



as by any other, and this line can always be relied on as being FREE FROMSNOW ANd'iCE 
Stop-over privileges are allowed at New Orleans or any of the above points. 

^^Throtigh Sleeping Cats from Chicago to New Orleans and Nciv Orleans to San Antonio 
and San Francisco ivitkout change, atidonly one change from Xezv Orleans to Galveston and Austin. 

For more particular Information regarding above Routes, also time of placing Tickets on Sale, and Limitation, 

Rates, etc., etc., address 
A. H. HANSON, General Passenger Agent, Chicago. 



« ESXABLISHED 1811. $ 



Alexander Brown & Sons, 



BALTIMORE, 



Transact A General 



Forem anil Domestic Baste Mmm. 



Buy and Sell Bills of Exchange on Great Britain, Ireland 
and other Foreign points. 



ISSUE COMMERCIAL and TRAVELERS' CREDITS 
IN STERLING, FRANCS, or DOLLARS, 

AVAILABLE IN ANY PART OF THE WORLD. 

Make Telegraphic Transfers of Money between this and other countries. 
Make Collections of Drafts. 

RAILROAD, MUNICIPAL and other LOANS NEGOTIATED. 

And ADVANCES MADE ON 

Cotton, Grain and other Approved Securities. 

Interest Allowed on Deposits of Banks, Bankers, Corporations and Individuals. 

Members of Baltimore Stock Exchange. 

BUY and SELL STOCKS and BONDS IN THIS AND OTHER CITIES. 



Private Wire to Philadelphia and New York. 



BROWN BROTHERS & CO. I BROWN, SHIPLEY & CO. 

New York, Philadelphia and Boston. | London and Liverpool. 



V 



^6 



"1( 



